THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 

ATLANTA   •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY    •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OP  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


THE  ORGANIZATION 
AND  ADMINISTRATION 

OF 

•PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


BY 

JESSE  FEIRING  WILLIAMS,  A.B.,  M.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Physical  Education 

Teachers  College 
Columbia  University 


NEW  YORK 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1922 

All  rights  reserved 


FEINTED   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


COPYRIGHT,  1922, 
BT  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  July,  1922. 


DEDICATION 

To  Margaret  and  Grace,  to  girls  and  boys  everywhere, 
this  book  is  inscribed,  with  the  knowledge  that  men  and 
women  are  increasingly  more  sensitive  to  your  needs,  and 
with  the  conviction  that  they  will  provide  you  all  with 
better  and  more  opportunities  for  health  and  happiness. 


•J 


PREFACE 

The  development  of  physical  education  in  America 
has  been  desultory  always  and,  at  times,  even  aimless. 
The  manual  training  movement  was  forgotten  in  the 
enthusiasm  over  Dio  Lewis'  New  Gymnastics.  Catharine 
Beecher's  Calisthenics  for  women  lasted  long  enough  to 
develop  a  reaction  towards  other  types  of  work.  Del- 
sarte  had  its  short  moment;  now  it  is  gone.  Too  often 
we  have  installed  the  work  of  physical  education  with 
a  shout,  we  have  supported  it  with  cheers,  and  we  have 
seen  it  dwindle  and  die  without  even  a  tear. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  record  a  different  temper  today. 
School  people  are  serious  in  their  consideration  of  the 
matter.  Principals,  superintendents,  and  presidents  are 
making  plans  for  modern  physical  education,  after  careful 
study  of  the  needs  of  boys  and  girls  and  the  opportunities 
that  physical  education  can  offer  to  help  meet  these  needs. 

The  old  systems,  the  old  traditions,  so  carefully  nour- 
ished by  certain  normal  schools  and  training  centers,  are 
being  subjected  to  a  criticism  that  will  eventually  relegate 
to  the  limbo  of  forgotten  things,  the  unscientific,  the 
unserviceable,  and  the  unsound  practice  of  our  programs. 
School  men  and  physical  education  experts  are  seeking 
guides  and  standards  for  the  work  and  are  unwilling  to 
accept  the  aims,  purposes,  guides,  and  standards  of  any 
school  of  physical  education  unless  they  are  based  on 
scientific  foundations. 

The  great  variety  of  work  offered  in  the  schools  has 
contributed  to  confusion  in  organization  and  in  super- 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

vision.  The  many  requests  for  help  and  information 
coming  not  only  from  teachers  of  physical  education,  but 
also  from  school  men  themselves,  have  led  to  this  effort  to 
provide  a  book  dealing  with  problems  of  organization  and 
administration. 

To  help  set  standards,  to  help  state  the  facts  that  are 
scientific  and  demonstrated,  to  suggest  tests  and  guides 
that  can  be  used,  and  to  report  favorable  progress  in  this 
field,  is  the  purpose  of  this  book.  School  principals, 
superintendents,  presidents  of  colleges  and  universities, 
as  well  as  teachers  and  directors  of  physical  education, 
have  helped  to  shape  its  pages.  Consideration  of  their 
problems  in  the  field  has  grown  into  a  course  of  lectures 
and  the  lectures,  ultimately  into  the  chapters  that  open 
before  you.  This  is  their  book;  it  seeks  to  serve  them. 

The  point  of  view  of  modern  physical  education,  guid- 
ing principles  in  organization  and  administration,  objects, 
content,  and  material  of  physical  education  seemed  to  be 
necessary  subjects  for  discussion  before  a  detailed  analysis 
of  the  administrative  problems  could  be  given.  Thus,  the 
first  three  chapters  deal  with  a  point  of  view  and  principles 
by  which  we  are  guided  in  our  subsequent  choices  and 
decisions.  This  arrangement  rationalizes  the  procedure 
and  makes  for  understanding. 

I  am  indebted  to  many  for  help  and  suggestions.  In 
particular  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood, 
whose  criticism  and  guidance  have  been  most  valuable. 
Whatever  of  merit  there  is  in  this  book  I  owe  largely  to 
him,  who  has  been  an  inspiration  not  only  as  head  of 
department  but  also  as  counsellor  and  friend.  Miss  Helen 
Frost,  Miss  Nita  Sheffield,  Miss  Lucy  Wallrich,  Mr.  J. 
Blake  Hillyer,  Miss  Amy  Morris  Homans,  Miss  Gertrude 
Dudley,  Miss  Florence  Stuart,  Professor  C.  W.  Savage, 
Dr.  R.  Burton-Opitz,  Dr.  J.  W.  Wilce,  Dr.  W.  R.  Morri- 
son, Dr.  Helen  Todd,  Mr.  Daniel  Chase,  Miss  Jessie 


PREFACE  ix 

Whitham,  and  Professor  Agnes  Wayman  have  helped, 
some  by  criticising  the  entire  manuscript,  others  by  cor- 
recting or  verifying  doubtful  points.  This  acknowledg- 
ment is  not  a  shifting  of  responsibility;  the  mistakes, 
errors,  omissions,  where  they  occur,  are  mine. 

For  important  and  valuable  work  on  the  text  I  am 
indebted  to  Gena  Hickox. 

JESSE  FEIRING  WILLIAMS. 

Teachers  College 
Columbia  University 


CONTENTS 

I.  Modern  physical  education. 

Historical,  1-5;  a  new  viewpoint,  5-6;  old  aims  inadequate, 
6-8;  fallacies  in  aims,  8-10;  physical  education  and 
general  education,  10-11;  a  rational  tendency,  11-12; 
the  basis  for  determination  of  principles,  12-16;  aims, 
16-18;  the  aim  of  physical  education,  18-21. 

II.  Guiding  principles  in  the  organization  and  administration  of  the 

work  of  physical  education. 

Familiar  aims  in  physical  education,  23-24;  critical  study 
of  the  above  aims,  24;  consideration  of  the  corrective 
aim,  24-26;  consideration  of  the  educational  aim,  26-28; 
consideration  of  the  hygienic  aim,  28-30;  consideration 
of  the  recreative  aim,  30-32;  present  methods  of  organ- 
ization, 32-34  ;  need  for  physical  vigor  and  good  citizen- 
ship, 34-36;  organization  should  consider  the  nature  of 
the  elements  organized,  36-37;  organization  should  en- 
compass the  physical  needs  of  the  child,  37-38;  group- 
ing of  children,  38;  a  new  spirit,  38-39;  department 
schedules,  39-42. 

HI.  Objects,  content,  and  material  of  activities  of  the  gymnasium 

and  playground. 

Objectives,  44-45;  content,  45;  modifiers  of  content,  45-46; 
content  of  curriculum  for  elementary  schools,  46;  for 
high  schools,  46-51;  interschool  athletics  for  girls,  51-54; 
content  of  work  for  college  students,  54-57;  types  of 
material,  57-72. 

IV.  Organization  of  a  Department  of  Physical  Education. 

First  consideration,  74;  public  school  department,  74-80; 
a  suggested  plan,  81-82;  university  department^  82-89; 
organization  for  girls  and  women,  89;  state  organization, 
national  physical  education,  91. 


V.  The  teacher,  supervisor,  or  director  of  physical  education. 

The  selection,  93-94;  two,  three,  and  four  year  courses, 
94-95;  points  in  a  good  teacher,  95-98;  an  essential 
point  of  view,  98-99. 

•E 


xii  CONTENTS 

VI.  Supervising  and  judging  the  work  of  physical  education. 

Health  observation,  101 ;  school  sanitation,  101-102;  phys- 
ical education,  103-104;  points  in  a  good  gymnastic 
lesson,  104-106;  points  in  a  good  athletic  organization, 
106-108;  points  in  a  good  dancing  lesson,  108-109; 
points  in  a  good  departmental  organization,  109-110; 
need  for  scoring  standards,  110-113;  present  procedure 
in  supervision,  113-121;  principles  in  supervision  of 
physical  education,  122-124. 

VII.  Administration  of  the  gymnasium,  pool,  and  playground. 

Importance  of  good  equipment,  125-126;  use  of  equipment 
by  boys  and  girls,  126;  administration  of  the  gymnasium, 
126^127;  locker  room,  127-129;  locker  records,  129-130; 
hygiene  of  instruction,  130-145;  administration  of  city 
recreation,  145-148;  management  of  playground,  148- 
159. 

VIII.  Athletics. 

Organization   and   administration   of   athletics,    161-165; 

I  /  "7  extra-curricular  activities,  165-166;  administrative  prob- 

lems in  athletics,  166;  who  shall  select  the  coach,  166- 
167;  qualifications  of  a  coach,  167-169;  amateurism  and 
professionalism,  169-174;  interscholastic  vs.  intraschool 
athletics,  174-176;  athletics  as  extra-curricular  activities, 
176-178;  athletics  for  aU,  178-180;  athletics  for  girls,  180. 

IX.  Management  of  athletic  sports,  games,  and  contests. 

Preliminary  arrangements,  183-187;  plans  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  meet,  187-191;  essential  materials,  191-195; 
management  of  team  sports,  195-196;  swimming  meets, 
196-197;  tournaments,  197;  arranging  competition,  197- 
202;  graphic  representation,  202-203;  schedule  making, 
204-209;  medical  control  in  competition,  209-211. 

X.  Intramural  athletics,  recreational  clubs,  camping,  and  hiking. 

Physical  education  for  all,  212;  intramural  sport,  212-214; 
intramural  sport  for  women,  214-215;  value  of  intra- 
mural sports,  215-216;  organizations  in  intramural  sport, 
216-218;  control  of  intramural  sports,  218;  sports-for- 
all  requires  equipment,  218-219;  the  future  of  intramural 
sport,  219-221;  athletics  in  the  army  as  intramural 
sport,  221-224;  recreational  clubs — purpose,  224-225; 
program  of  Horace  Mann  recreational  clubs,  225-226; 
girls'  recreational  clubs,  226-230;  camping  and  hiking 
activities,  230-231. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

XI.  Excuses,  substitutions,    credit,    attendance,    roll    taking,    and 

grading  for  physical  education  classes. 
Excuses  from  requirement  in  physical  education,  232;  ex- 
cuses given  by  the  family  physician,  232-238;  substitu- 
tion of  other  work  for  the  requirement  in  physical  educa- 
tion, 238-242;  administration  of  special  cases,  242; 
questionnaire  data,  242;  credit,  242-244;  attendance, 
244-245;  absence  and  tardiness,  245;  monthly  absences, 
245-246;  roU  taking,  246-248;  grading,  248-250. 

XII.  Determination  of  the  health  of  students  and  the  efficiency  of 

physical  education  procedure. 

A  statement  of  the  problem,  252-253;  nutrition,  253-258; 
eyes,  258-260;  ears,  260-261;  mouth,  261-263;  heart 
and  circulatory  system,  263-266;  lungs,  266;  feet,  266- 
267;  spine,  267-268;  indications  of  health  disorders  in 
children,  268-272;  University  of  California  physical 
efficiency  test,  273-276;  Columbia  University  physical 
efficiency  test,  276-278;  Canadian  standard  efficiency 
tests,  279-282;  Detroit  Decathlon  test,  282;  outdoor 
athletic  test  for  boys,  282-284;  the  athletic  badge  test 
for  boys  and  girls,  284-288;  physical  efficiency  tests  for 
grade  schools,  288-293;  scale  for  measuring  physical 
education,  293-297;  New  York  State  test,  298. 


V'As    Ii*-,' 


THE  ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF 
PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  ONE 

MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Historical.— Civilized  society  has  always  felt  the  need 
for  the  physical  education  of  its  members,  except  in  brief 
periods  such  as  existed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  asceti- 
cism in  the  early  Christian  church  set  a  premium  upon 
physical  weakness  in  order  to  attain  spiritual  excellence. 
The  people  of  Persia,  Egypt,  India,  and  China  had 
methods  of  body  training  even  before  the  Greeks  had 
them,  but  the  latter  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  first  people 
to  establish  and  maintain  a  national  system  of  physical 
education  based  upon  high  ideals  and  thorough  training. 
The  festivals  held  at  Olympia,  Corinth,  Nemea,  and 
Pythea  witnessed  the  very  acme  of  excellence  in  develop- 
ment of  the  body  of  man.  Later,  in  Rome,  physical 
education,  directed  to  military  ends,  became  an  essential 
part  of  the  training  of  the  boys  of  all  citizens;  but  with 
the  break-up  of  the  Roman  Empire  there  came  upon  the 
world  a  pall  of  darkness,  gloom,  and  even  despair. 
Asceticism  and  scholasticism  held  the  minds  of  men  in 
ecclesiastical  bonds  that  prevented  a  rational  approach 
to  the  question  of  education  in  any  of  its  aspects. 

The  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centu- 
ries broke  the  bonds  of  ecclesiastical  tyranny  and  rebelled 
at  the  conception  of  schooling  as  pure  discipline.  For  a 
while,  the  manuscripts  of  Greek  life  and  education  served 

1 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

as  the  only  guide  and  led  to  such  extremes  that  the 
followers  of  the  movement  endeavored  to  express  their 
thought  only  in  the  classical  language.  To-day  in  the  effort 
to  get  away  from  formal  discipline  in  the  gymnasium,  to 
escape  the  artificial,  traditional,  formal  calisthenics  and 
gymnastics,  physical  educators  are  wont  to  declare  that  the 
Greek  idea  in  athletics  and  gymnastics  is  the  only  solu- 
tion to  the  problem.  In  proof  they  cite  the  fact  that 
games  and  contests  among  the  Greeks  were  not  indulged 
in  haphazardly  as  they  are  to-day,  nor  were  they  partici- 
pated in  by  the  few  for  the  entertainment  of  the  many  (1). 
Success  with  the  Greeks  was  the  perfect  performance 
with  reference  to  form,  grace,  skill,  and  control  of  temper 
—not  the  winning  at  all  costs  which  characterizes  so  much 
of  our  amateur  sport  in  America  and  Europe.  The 
Pentathlon  as  an  event  represented  an  achievement,  the 
satisfactory  performance  of  which  ranks  in  many  respects 
above  our  "letter"  standards  in  school  and  college 
athletics. 

Between  the  Greek  and  modern  physical  education  is 
a  great  gulf,  fixed  in  part  by  the  various  systems  of 
gymnastics  that  have  developed  to  serve  the  needs  of 
nations  and  peoples.  The  years  between  have  witnessed 
the  remarkable  experiment  at  Mantua  in  1425  by  Vit- 
torino  da  Feltro,  who  called  his  school  "  La  Casa  Giocosa," 
or  the  House  of  Delight;  the  spirited  work  of  Guths 
Muths  at  Schnephenthal  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century;  the  untiring  zeal  of  those  two  soldiers  of 
fortune,  Clias  in  England  and  Switzerland  in  1822  and 
Amoros  in  Paris  in  1820;  and  the  epochal  achievements 
of  Nachtigall  in  Denmark  in  1799.  Ling  in  Sweden  and 
Jahn  in  Germany  stand  out  as  the  two  leaders  who 
achieved  for  their  respective  countries  national  forms  of 
physical  education.  Later  their  systems,  ideas,  and  prin- 
ciples were  carried  to  America  by  political  refugees  and 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  3 

enthusiastic  propagandists.  It  is  important  to  note  that 
in  the  period  from  the  Renaissance  to  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  systems  of  physical  education  were  devel- 
oped by  patriotic  teachers  without  scientific  guides  and 
principles.  They  failed  to  make  a  study  of  the  child. 
They  knew  no  psychology,  and  the  little  physiology  that 
they  had  was  largely  incorrect.  They  ignored  Rousseau's 
teaching  and  the  contribution  of  the  educational  leaders 
who  helped  to  shape  the  educational  practice  in  all  lands. 

The  two  "  systems  "  of  physical  training  best  known  in 
the  United  States  are  the  German  and  the  Swedish. 

The  German  system  of  gymnastics  introduced  in 
America  by  Lieber,  Beck,  and  Follen  is  mainly  due  to  the 
personality  and  organizing  genius  of  Friedrick  Ludwig 
Jahn,  known  to  all  German  Turners  as  "Father  Jahn"  (2). 
With  Jahn  the  development  of  gymnastics  was  not 
connected  with -educational  aims  and  purposes.  It  was 
an  outgrowth  of  the  political  situation  in  France  and 
Germany. 

Napoleon  defeated  the  German  forces  at  Jena  in  1806, 
and  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  in  1807  deprived  Prussia  of  half 
her  territory.  This  encroachment  on  his  Fatherland 
aroused  a  controlling  passion  in  Jahn's  life  and  he  used  all 
his  powers  to  bring  the  scattered  German  provinces  to- 
gether. Love  of  country  therefore  was  the  great  factor 
in  the  development  of  the  gymnastic  societies.  Professor 
Leonard  expresses  the  motive  when  he  says,  "His  idea 
was  to  unite  the  people  of  Germany  into  one  nation, 
physically,  intellectually,  and  morally  strong,  against  the 
threatening  enemy  of  the  west." 

As  a  "system"  therefore  it  was  unscientific.  It  repre- 
sented no  study  of  the  nature  of  man,  nor  the  essential 
biologic  and  social  needs  of  the  individual,  nor  study  of 
the  past.  It  was  merely  the  expression  of  a  patriotic  and 
noble  soul  who  instilled  into  the  German  nation  the 


4  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

idea  of  having  better  soldiers  to  uphold  the  flag  of  the 
Fatherland. 

The  Swedish  system  is  commonly  known  as  a  scien- 
tific system,  founded  on  anatomy  and  physiology,  and 
therefore,  it  is  claimed,  substantially  correct.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  founder  of  the  system,  Per  Henrik  Ling, 
died  in  1839.  It  was  not  until  thirty  years  later  that  the 
several  discoveries  in  physiology  were  coordinated  into  a 
body  of  scientific  knowledge.*  The  " system"  was  not 
based  on  scientific  principles  at  all.  Moreover  it  is 
important  to  remember  that  it  was  born  in  the  same  kind 
of  soil,  watered  by  the  same  kind  of  rain,  and  blossomed 
forth  in  response  to  the  same  rays  of  patriotism  that  had 
been  arousing  the  German  nation  (2).  The  Swedes  had 
been  suffering  national  losses  on  the  south  and  east  of  the 
Baltic,  due  to  the  aggressions  of  France  and  Russia. 
Given  a  man  with  an  artistic  temperament,  in  a  moment 
of  national  danger,  and  at  once  he  can  conceive  the  people 
developed  into  perfect  soldiers  arrayed  in  phalanx,  dealing 
death-destroying  charges  to  the  oncoming  enemies. 

Per  Henrik  Ling  first  became  interested  in  fencing, 
and  later  studied  anatomy  and  physiology.  He  was  eager 
to  see  his  countrymen  strong  in  body  and  soul,  as  is  shown 
in  his  poems,  dramas,  and  writings  on  gymnastics.  Ling 
is  known  as  the  "  Father  of  Gymnastics,"  but  again,  his 
work,  as  Jahn's  work  in  Germany,  was  a  system  of  exer- 
cises, developed  to  provide  strong  soldiers  for  the  native 
land.  The  conception  that  muscular  power  was  the  re- 
quisite for  political  safety  in  a  nation  of  weaklings  was 
easily  arrived  at.  There  was  little  study  of  the  child,  no 
special  knowledge  of  his  interests  and  desires,  no  ap- 
preciation of  social  instincts.  It  was  truly  an  adult- 

*  The  graphic  method  devised  by  Ludwig  (1816-1895),  the  work  on  chemical  physiology 
by  Liebig,  Pfluger,  Hoppe-Seyler,  and  others  in  the  latwr  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
monumental  work  of  Johannes  Midler  mark  the  beginning  of  scientific  physiology.  Complete 
historical  data  is  given  by  Verworn,  AUgemeine  Phyaiologie.  Jena,  Verlag  von  Fischer,  1897. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  5 

conceived,  formal,  anatomical  system.  As  such  it  remains 
in  essential  characteristics  to-day.  What  physiology  gov- 
erned it,  erred  largely,  and  yet  the  traditional  reasons  and 
arguments  cling  to  the  system.  Its  justification  is  in  its 
insistence,  very  much,  like  the  claim  for  the  use  of  the  boy's 
garment  to  protect  the  man — it  served  at  one  time,  it 
should  be  used  now. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  and  important  to  under- 
stand that  these  two  systems,  the  German  and  Swedish, 
came  into  existence  because  of  military  needs;  it  is  sig- 
nificant with  reference  to  the  tendency  in  modern  physi- 
cal education,  that  the  War  Department  of  the  United 
States,  in  developing  the  new  national  army,  placed  the 
emphasis  on  games  and  sports.  Setting-up  exercises  were 
used  to  some  extent,  but  not  in  the  old  way  nor  with  the 
old  emphasis.  Football,  basketball,  boxing,  wrestling, 
mass  games,  and  track  sports,  replaced  both  in  physical 
and  disciplinary  training  the  systems  so  worshipped  by 
the  Germans  and  the  Swedes. 

A  new  view  point. — It  is  unfortunate  that  the  general 
public  thinks  of  physical  education  as  having  to  do 
primarily  with  formal  calisthenics  and  gymnastics.  The 
student  of  physical  education  is  being  trained  in  pro- 
gressive institutions  today  along  other  lines  than  the 
" day's  order"  and  with  material  more  related  to  living 
than  " giant  swings"  and  " waltz  series."  The  educa- 
tional administrator  is  asking  for  a  more  functional  pro- 
gram and  a  less  stereotyped  teacher  (3). 

The  new  view  point  with  reference  to  physical  educa- 
tion aims  and  program  is  well  expressed  by  Professor 
Rapeer  in  a  preliminary  report  on  Minimum  Essentials  in 
Physical  Education.  His  view  is  worth  repeating  at 
length: 

Modern  theory  is  opposed  to  the  customary  aims  of  physical  training 
as  given  by  many  physical  training  directors  in  so  far  as  they  are 


6  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

dominated  by  faculty  psychology  and  an  extreme  confidence  in  formal 
discipline.  General  'obedience'  (to  commands),  general  power  of 
'determination,'  of  'order,'  of  'exactness  and  precision,'  of '  self-control/ 
of  'endurance,'  etc.,  cannot  be  developed  to  any  great  extent  by  gym- 
nastics or  any  other  phase  of  school  activities.  One  may  gain  great 
powers  of  self-control,  precision,  and  determination  in  certain  phases 
of  school  work  without  showing  or  possessing  such  agilities  when  out- 
side of  the  school  environment  in  which  they  were  developed.  This 
again  lessens  the  emphasis  on  formal  physical  training  and  strengthens 
the  emphasis  on  purposive  psychological  play  and  work. 

The  progressive  physical  educator  today  is  in  favor  of  combining  and 
unifying  physical  and  mental  education  as  one  purposive  system  of 
activities  having  their  own  end,  and  he  sees  the  tendency  very  strong 
in  this  direction  in  up-;to-date  schools.  He  is  in  favor  of  using  as  many 
instinctive  play  activities  as  possible,  but  he  realizes  that  our  highly 
artificial  systems  of  schooling,  with  their  present  buildings,  grounds, 
equipment,  and  courses  will  long  resist  the  transforming  tendencies  of 
the  modern  theories  and  science  of  education.  For  this  reason  he 
offers  a  limited  amount  of  formal  physical  training  indoors  when 
necessary  because  of  weather,  yard,  or  street  conditions,  outdoors 
whenever  possible. 

The  tendency  in  modern  physical  education  must  be 
appreciated  and  the  fundamental  reasons  for  the  tendency 
understood,  if  there  is  to  be  a  real  and  intelligent  effort 
made  to  correct  the  unfavorable  physical  environment  of 
the  school.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  stated,  therefore, 
that  physical  education  as  a  procedure  and  practice  in 
education  should  not  be  judged  only  by  the  adaptability  of 
its  material  to  abnormal  conditions.  The  correct,  the  ideal, 
the  purposive  aim  should  be  clearly  set  forth  and  every 
effort  and  agency  used  to  provide  in  the  school  or  com- 
munity opportunity  for  the  sanctioned  program. 

Old  aims  inadequate. — The  aims  in  this  field  have 
been  set  forth  vaguely  and  in  many  instances  have  been 
unacceptable.  Too  often  the  aims  are  confusing;  fre- 
quently they 'are  so  impoverished  that  no  educator  is 
willing  to  give  sanction  for  work  based  on  such  purposes. 
At  a  recent  convention  of  physical  educators  the  follow- 
ing statement  indicated  this  confusion  :* 

*  Williams,  Jesse  Feiring,— American  Physical  Education  Rniew.     Nov.  1916. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  7 

As  confirmative  evidence  that  our  schools  are  not  adequately  meeting 
the  problems  involved  in  the  training  of  teachers  of  boys  and  girls,  of 
young  men  and  young  women,  let  me  call  your  attention  to  the  different 
aims  set  forth  at  a  recent  conference  in  physical  training. 

1.  Skill,  strength,  and  endurance  as  ends  in  training  for  citizenship. 

2.  Deliberation,  reflection,  determination,  perseverance,  and  self- 

control  as  ends  in  physical  training. 

3.  The  development  of  morality  through  physical  education — 

accomplished  by  obedience  to  authority. 

4.  The  purpose  of  high  school  athletics  is  for  the  development  of 

the  individual  in  physique,  skill,  self-confidence,  and  efficiency. 
Is  it  not  fair  to  ask  the^  question,  How  are  we  to  get  anywhere  with 
such  confusion  in  stated  aims  and  purposes?  Our  normal  schools  need 
a  unifying  principle  bringing  us  all  together,  ready  and  equipped  to 
work  with  each  other,  and  with  enough  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  the  aims  and  purposes  of  those  engaged  in  the  general  field  to  make  for 
unity  and  solidarity  of  action.  We  need  to  get  together  and  predicate 
our  efforts  to  the  education  of  one  and  the  same  child.  The  superin- 
tendent or  principal  of  schools  cannot  afford  to  be  narrow  in  this  respect 
either.  He  needs  us  as  much  as  we  need  him.  We  cannot  shut  our- 
selves off  from  the  general  field  and  say  that  we  are  so  specialized  that 
our  work  does  not  concern  other  teachers  and  that  their  work  does  not 
concern  us. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  confusion  in  aims  is  due  to  the 
varying  conceptions  of  the  relation  of  mind  and  body,  of 
formal  discipline,  of  the  importance  of  utilization  of 
instinctive  tendencies,  and  of  the  limitations  of  school  life 
as  evidenced  in  equipment  and  opportunities  of  most 
schools  and  colleges. 

The  old  systems  of  physical  education,  fallacious  in 
theory,  have  furthered  the  confusion.  The  German 
system  of  gymnastics  as  developed  in  the  United  States 
is  closely  associated  with  the  Turnverein  movement  and 
with  the  expression  of  German  ideas  in  other  fields.  The 
cities  which  have  a  large  German  population  best  illustrate 
the  working  of  the  German  system.  It  is  interesting  and 
important  that  physical  education  in  Cincinnati,  Mil- 
waukee, and  St.  Louis  is  primarily  German  in  type,  and 
yet  it  represents  in  results  no  particular  achievement. 
In  comparison  with  New  York  City,  Detroit,  San  Fran- 


8  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

cisco,  and  other  places  it  is  distinctly  inferior.  -This  may 
be  due  to  other  factors.  Worthy  of  mention  is  the 
"Turnverein  type"  of  instructor  seen  in  these  schools. 
Many  of  them  have  not  even  a  high  school  education  and, 
in  some  cases,  represent  training  that  is  not  the  most 
favorable  from  the  standpoint  of  teaching. 

The  Swedish  system  of  gymnastics  is  more  widely 
spread  in  the  United  States  than  the  German.  At  one 
time  it  was  followed  in  detail  in  Boston  and  other  New 
England  cities,  but  even  in  this  field  it  has  undergone 
modification  that  leaves  little  of  the  sort  of  thing  that 
delighted  the  eye  of  Posse,  Nissen,  and  Bollin.  Its  in- 
fluence today  is  felt  mainly  in  the  general  failure  to 
recognize  the  fallacies  of  formal  drill,  with  emphasis  on 
development  of  coordination  in  general  and  good  posture 
in  groups.  President  Hall  some  years  ago  saw  the  need 
in  this  field.  He  says  :* 

On  the  whole,  while  modern  gymnastics  have  done  more  for  the 
trunk,  shoulders,  and  arms  than  for  the  legs,  it  is  now  too  selfish  and 
ego-centric,  deficient  on  the  side  of  psychic  impulsion,  and  but  little 
subordinated  to  ethical  or  intellectual  development  ...  Its  need  is 
radical  revision  and  coordination  of  various  cults  and  theories  in  the 
light  of  .the  latest  psycho-physiological  science. 

The  modern  educator  concerned  with  the  organization 
of  physical  education  and  the  director  concerned  with  the 
administration  of  physical  education  will  not  adopt  either 
of  the  systems  discussed.  He  will  be  exceedingly  critical 
before  he  attempts  even  to  adapt  them.  It  is  important 
to  give  more  at  length  the  reasons  for  this  categorical 
statement. 

Fallacies  in  aims. — Those  who  deify  systems  and  hold 
exclusively  to  prescribed  gymnastic  arm,  leg,  and  trunk 
exercises  are  sustained  in  thek  own  thinking  by  two 
closely  related  motives.  One  motive  aims  at  the  pro- 
motion of  bodily  health  by  muscular  contraction  and 

*  Hall.  G.  Stanley,  Adolescence,     pp.  206-207.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1911. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  9 

deep  breathing;  the  other  aims  to  provide  an  antidote 
for  the  unhealthful  customs,  tendencies,  and  conditions 
of  modern  life.  In  the  final  analysis,  both  motives  have 
health  as  the  raison  d'etre  for  their  work. 

It  should  be  stated  clearly  that  the  first  motive  errs  in 
ascribing  to  muscular  contraction  and  deep  breathing 
such  pronounced  health-giving  qualities.  While  it  is  true 
that  exercise  is  essential  for  vigorous  health,  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  ignoring  of  all  the  other  elements  necessary 
in  health,  such  as  psychic  and  social  factors,  and  the 
building  of  a  system  based  on  muscular  contraction  and 
perspiration,  is  the  greatest  mistake  of  those  in  this  field. 
This  error  is  evident  to  those  who  witnessed  the  opposi- 
tion to  state  physical  education  in  the  New  York  Legis- 
lature in  1921.  The  rural  children  -greatly  need  the 
social  values  in  physical  education;  but  the  opposition 
to  the  law  was  from  the  rural  representatives.  Health 
cannot  be  defined  in  terms  of  large  muscles  or  lung 
capacity. 

The  second  motive  errs  in  accepting  conditions  of  life 
to-day  as  necessary  and  permanent,  and  defending  a 
system  based  upon  essentially  abnormal  conditions.  It  \ 
is  more  important  to  work  for  more  playgrounds,  more 
play  spaces,  more  play  time,  in  school  and  out,  than  to 
build  up  elaborate  arguments  to  defend  a  system  designed 
to  provide  formal  calisthenics  in  concentrated  form  be- 
cause play  and  natural  activities  are  not  possible  in  the 
scheme  of  things  in  many  schools.  )We  should  realize 
that  formal  calisthenics  and  gymnastics  are  a  deformity 
in  education  and  we  should  seek  a  cure  (4) .  It  is  important 
also  to  note  that  although  the  health  problem  is  prominent 
in  the  consideration  of  physical  educators,  often  they  have 
little  appreciation  of  what  is  involved  in  its  solution. 
Frequently  classes  in  calisthenics  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  health  are  held  in  dirty,  foul,  dark  gymnasia.  In 


10  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

this  way,  too  exclusive  attention  to  special  exercises 
often  leaves  the  teacher  negligent  of  the  hygienic  and 
sanitary  part  of  the  program. 

Physical  education  and  general  education. — The  mod- 
ern tendency  in  physical  education  should  be  to  harmonize 
the  special  program  and  the  general  curriculum.  It  is 
,  important  to  realize  that  the  purpose  of  physical  edu- 
cation should  in  the  main  be  the  purpose  of  all  phases  of 
education.  The  same  goal  should  be  aimed  at.  Now  while 
educational  theory  is  breaking  away  in  many  places  from 
the  traditional  method  and  material  of  the  older  type  of 
instruction  (5),  physical  education  can  with  less  justi- 
fication sanction  its  program  upon  formal  and  disciplin- 
ary grounds.  To  express  the  reaction  in  educational 
theory,  a  recent  editorial  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post 
is  given  in  part : 

Here  is  a  healthy  boy  of  twelve.  What  we  most  want  of  him  is  that 
he  shall  develop  himself  in  character  and  ability  to  the  utmost  extent 
of  which  he  is  capable.  If  there  is  a  precious  little  spark  of  originality 
or  germ  of  leadership  anywhere  about^him,  we  most  want  him  to  dis- 
cover that  and  develop  it,  for  there  is  never  enough  leadership  and 
originality  in  the  world.  We  are  always  wanting  inventors  and  leaders 
in  industry,  in  politics,  in  science,  in  art. 

So  we  take  this  boy  .  .  .  and  we  give  him  certain  carefully  pre- 
scribed books,  none  of  which  interests  him  very  much,  and  tell  him  it 
makes  no  difference  if  one  of  them  happens  to  interest  him  more  than 
another;  he  must  give  exactly  the  same  attention  to  all  of  them  for 
rigidly  prescribed  periods. 

By  interpolating  the  procedure  of  physical  education 
we  may  say  that  we  take  him  to  the  gymnasium  with 
sixty  to  one  hundred  others  and  make  him  go  through 
a  series  of  arm,  leg,  and  trunk  exercises,  designed  to 
produce  health  and  coordination,  and  to  correct  the  inju- 
rious effects  of  his  class  room  attendance.  We  pay  scant 
attention  to  his  social  and  biologic  interests  and  desires. 
We  neglect  his  preadolescent  interests  for  loyalty  to 
causes  and  high  ideals.  We  exercise  him ...  a  kind  of 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  11 

exorcism.     It  apparently  matters  little   that  he  hates 
"gymnasium,"  that  he  gets  out  of  it  whenever  he  can. 
The  editorial  continues : 

He  is  good  in  proportion  as  he  takes  the  books,  just  as  some  well- 
regulated  machine  takes  whatever  is  fed  into  it.  He  is  good  in  propor- 
tion as  he  submits  to  a  cast-iron,  mechanical  regimen,  and  represses  all 
impulses  that  are  not  in  strict  conformity  with  unvarying  rules  .  .  . 
which,  for  a  healthy  boy,  means  repressing  practically  all  impulses. 

In  similar  fashion,  he  is  good  in  proportion  to  the 
obedience  he  gives  a  teacher  who  commands  him  to  do 
an  exercise  that  has  no  mental  content,  no  interesting 
situation,  that  is  void  of  all  attractiveness.  The  command 
is  to  stretch  the  left  arm  upward,  the  right  sideward,  and 
stand  on  the  toes.  His  whole  body  is  crying  to  be  tested 
in  a  game  with  the  other  boys  in  which  accuracy  of  aim, 
strength  of  legs,  or  quickness  of  thought  will  bring  success. 

Now,  in  seeking  health  and  coordination,  these  muscle- 
bound  minds  of  our  " systematic"  teachers  forget  the 
child  in  teaching  a  system  of  gymnastics  devised  by  a 
patriotic  German  for  Germans  or  a  poetical  Swede  for 
Swedes. 

A  rational  tendency. — A  present  day  tendency  in  phys- 
ical education  seeks  a  procedure  that  provides  knowledge, 
skill,  control,  and  aspirations  as  outgrowths  of  activities 
which  in  themselves  are  desirable  ends  and  satisfying  to  . 
human  interests  and  desires.    For_example>,,d3i1drpn  in  I/ 
folk  dancing  will,  if  properly  taught,  develop  knowledge  |/ 
of  folk  lore  and  folk  life,  skill  and  body  control,  and ' 
certain  social  values  in  working  harmoniously  with  other 
people,  as  an  outgrowth,  as  a  result  flowing  out  of  the 
dance,  which  in  itself  was  an  end,  and  satisfying  to  the 
child;  again,  boys  and  girls  in  certain  games,  under  proper 
direction  and  supervision  will  develop  skill  and  body    / 
control,  loyalty,  truthfulness,  and  honesty  (by  being  in 
situations  that  require  decision  and  action),  and  certain  f 


12  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

social  values,  as  cooperation  and  self-sacrifice  as  a  re-v 
sultant  of  the  game,  which  in  itself  was  an  end  and 
satisfying  to  the  boy  or  girl.     Cook,  in  that  remarkable 
book,    The  Play  Way,  testifies  to  this  method  for  the 
development  of  moral  and  social  values  when  he  says: 

I  tell  you  that  sincere  endeavor  and  honesty  of  purpose  can  only  be 
relied  on  under  conditions  that  favour  their  continuance. 

No  system  can  be  sanctioned  that  is  based  upon  the 
development  of  muscles  merely.  The  essential  unity  of 
the  child,  the  tremendous  need  today  for  men  and  women 
possessing  fine  qualities  of  citizenship,  the  growing  ap- 
preciation of  the  importance  of  play-forms  in  education 
(6)  indicate  the  poverty  of  the  muscle-building  program. 

The  progressive  educator  will  therefore  not  readily 
adopt  or  adapt  any  "  system."  He  will  look  upon  muscular 
strength  as  not  an  end  in  itself.  He  would  then  value 
more  highly  attitudes  of  mind  behind  the  muscles,  be- 
cause for  human  beings  and  for  the  highest  realization 
of  human  effort,  the  body  is  best  considered  as  the  instru- 
ment of  the  mind,  the  organ  of  expression  for  the  soul 
and  personality  of  the  human  being,  and  not  as  an  object 
of  development  or  culture  for  its  own  sake.  The  splendid 
physical  bodies  of  the  German  people  and  the  poverty  of 
their  moral  possessions,  as  shown  in  1914-1918,  illustrate 
perfectly  the  thought  here.  More  important  than  mus- 
cles, or  muscular  strength,  are  the  way  the  muscles  are 
used  and  the  mental  content  revealed  by  all  action. 

The  basis  for  determination  of  principles  for  physical 
education. — Physical  education  should  be  a  natural,  not 
an  artificial  process.  It  should  agree  fundamentally  with 
the  tenets  of  general  educational  theory.  All  education 
after  all  is  a  development  from  within;  we  are  not  all 
created  equal,  as  is  shown  by  the  comparative  study  of 
children;  education  cannot  be  taken  on,  but  comes  through 
the  workings  of  natural  instincts  and  desires;  it  is  an 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  13 

internal  development,  not  an  acquisition  of  information 
(7).      Adequale^jphysical  education  cannot  be  attained 
by  thinking  of  it  as  a  system  of  exercises  for  health  pur- 
poses, as  a  means  for  developing  better  soldiers.     Itjnust  | 
represent  an  effort  to  afford  the  child  a  wholesome  op-| 
portunity  to  express  himself  in  the  doing  of  worthy  things  j 
(8).     It  must  be  guided  by  the  needs  of  the  child  from 
the  child's  viewpoint,  corrected  by  educational  psychol- 
ogy, physiology,  biology,  and  sociology.     It  must  recog- 
nize the  play  instinct,  it  must  renounce  the  theory  of 
formal  discipline;    it  must  vivify  the  gymnasium  with 
living,  purposeful,  wholesome  forms  of  play  and  physical 
exercises. 

It  is  not  surprising  therefore  that  the  subject  matter 
in  physical  education  is  being  criticised  by  educators 
because  it  does  not  measure  up  in  its  purposes,  aims,  and 
methods  with  accepted  theories  of  education  as  a  whole. 
This  is  justifiable.  That  all  subjects  in  the  school  should 
be  tested  alike  in  their  plan  of  educating  the  child  is  a 
reasonable  request;  even  more  than  that — it  is  necessary. 
Moreover,  the  demand  for  new  principles  expressed  in 
aims  and  purposes  and  therefore  for  new  methods  and 
subject  matter,  is  not  sectional,  nor  national — it  is 
international. 

Dr.  Cloudesley  Brereton  representing  the  London 
County  Council  at  the  Fourth  International  Congress  on 
Hygiene  held  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  August,  1913,  said: 

The  time  appears  to  have  come  when  education  should  recognize 
certain  verites  de  M.  de  la  Palisse.  First  and  foremost  of  these  is  the 
obvious  truth  that  education  exists  for  the  child  and  not  the  child  for 

fr  bft  ™fl,pyf  t.hp  p.hild  is 


education;  and,  secondly,  tjiat thouffh  the 
one,  and  that  therefore  whatever  educatioi 


Jucation  is  given  to  it,  that  education 

mtlst  be  a  whole  in  itself;  or,  in  other  words,  the  subjects,  arts,  crafts,  or 
accomplishments  that  are  taught,  whether  they  be  physical  geography 
or  physical  exercises,  must  no  longer  be  taught  in  watertight  compart- 
ments, but  must  take  account  of  each  other's  presence  in  the  curriculum 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  be  linked  up  together  into  an  organic  whole.  N 


14  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Our  future  development  as  regards  curricula,  methods, 
and  purposes,  must  be  based  not  only  on  anatomy,  but 
also  upon  social  and  genetic  psychology,  educational 
psychology,  physiology,  and  even  philosophy.  These 
sciences  and  sanctions  must  guide  us  in  the  selection  and 
arrangement  of  material.  There  is,  in  this  view,  a  sharp 
line  dividing  the  subject  matter  in  physical  education. 
It  separates  on  the  one  side  artificial,  unscientific,  un- 
interesting, adult-conceived  exercises,  and  on  the  other, 
physical  activity  which  is  natural  and  scientific,  based 
upon  the  characteristics  of  child  development  and  the 
needs  of  the  child.  The  one  is  conceived  by  the  adult 
man  as  being  good  for  the  child  without  consideration 
of  the  child's  instincts,  interests,  or  desires;  the  other 
represents  an  opportunity  for  the  child  to  express  himself 
in  the  doing  of  worthy  and  acceptable  things.  The  one 
believes  in  formal  discipline,  "systems  of  physical  train- 
ing;7' the  other  looks  to  the  child,  an  excellent  repre- 
sentative of  the  race,  as  the  trial  judge  of  the  material  to 
be  accepted.  The  child's  judgment  will  not  always  be 
correct,  but  it  will  reveal  instincts  and  will  indicate  the 
direction  for  guidance. 

Dr.  George  Fisher  for  many  years  head  of  the  physical 
department  of  the  International  Committee  of  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  writes  inspiringly  for  this  modern  view  of  physical 
education:* 

The  new  physical  training  must  fit  the  man  to  the  new  age.  What 
does  the  new  age  demand?  What  kind  of  energy  does  it  require?  Not 
muscular  energy,  but  nervous  energy.  Not  muscular  power,  but 
organic  vigor. 

The  new  physical  training  will  develop  not  large  muscles,  but  strong 
muscles.  It  will  not  burn  up  nervous  energy  as  much  of  our  athletics 
has  done,  but  it  will  seek  to  store  up  nervous  energy. 

Because  the  new  age  makes  great  drafts  upon  nervous  energy,  it  will 
seek  to  conserve  this  valuable  commodity.  It  will  eliminate  muscle 

*  Fisher,  George  J.  "  The  New  Physical  Training."  American  Physical  Education  Review, 
May,  1929,  p.  218. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  15 

strain.  There  will  be  few  demands  on  the  attention.  It  will  promote 
relaxation  and  will  teach  rest  as  well  as  work.  The  old  emphasis  was 
upon  structure;  the  new  emphasis  will  be  upon  function. 

The  new  age  demands  men  of  initiative,  men  who  are  alert,  men  of 
imagination.  Therefore  those  types  of  activity  that  develop  these 
qualities  will  be  used.  These  qualities  are  usually  developed  in  play. 
Play  is  creative,  poetic,  stimulating  to  the  imagination. 

The  new  age  demands  men  who  will  play  the  game  and  play  it  fair 
and  according  to  rules.  Hence,  the  ethical  side  of  physical  training 
will  be  pressed  so  that  it  will  get  into  the  very  habits  of  men.  Note 
the  great  contrast  in  the  methods  of  warfare  pursued  by  the  British 
as  compared  with  the  Germans.  The  British  were  sportsmen.  They 
could  not  stoop  to  the  methods  used  by  the  enemy.  Their  training  in 
athletics  had  developed  characteristics  of  honor  and  fair  play,  which 
made  it  impossible  for  the  British  to  be  unfair. 

"The  sand  of  the  Desert  is  sodden  red, 
Red  with  the  wreck  of  the  square  that  Lroke, 
The  Catling's  jammed  and  the  co&fflfrclead, 
And  the  Regiment  blind  with  dust  and  smoke; 
The  River  of  Death  has  brimmed  his  bank, 
And  England  is  far  and  honour  a  name, 
But  the  voice  of  a  schoolboy  rallies  the  rank, 
Play  up,  play  up,  and  play  the  game." 

The  new  physical  training  will  be  objective  rather  than  subjective. 
The  old  gymnastics  was  subjective.  The  new  athletics  is  objective. 
Gymnastics  deal  with  form  and  the  way  the  exercise  is  performed. 
Athletics  deal  with  accomplishment  as,  for  illustration,  the  putting  of 
the  ball  over  the  line.  The  old  emphasis  in  physical  training  was  upon 
materials  used.  The  new  emphasis  is  upon  the  individuals  served. 

The  new  age,  because  of  much  of  its  monotony  of  work,  sordidness, 
and  artificialty,  will  require  of  its  physical  training  that  it  will  enrich 
life,  deepen  the  emotions,  enrich  the  feelings.  The  new  physical  train- 
ing will  select  those  forms  of  physical  expression  which  develop  the 
emotional  life.  It  will  emphasize  those  exercises  related  to  deep 
emotional  states. 

The  new  age  demands  social  leaders,  team  play,  ability  to  work  with 
others.  The  new  physical  training  will  be  highly  social.  It  will  place 
emphasis  upon  the  group,  upon  leadership,  upon  coordinate  action. 
The  old  emphasis  in  athletics  was  upon  the  spectacle.  The  new 
emphasis  will  be  upon  participation. 

The  new  physical  training  should  produce  the  following  type  of  man: 
slender  in  type,  graceful,  not  heavy  muscularly,  clear-eyed,  fair- 
skinned,  supple  but  not  tense,  alert,  erect,  easy  on  his  feet,  enthusiastic, 
happy,  forceful,  imaginative,  self-controlled,  true,  clean,  with  a  sense 
of  fair  play,  who  loves  the  companionship  of  his  fellows,  and  who  has 
the  fear  of  God  in  his  heart. 


16  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  basis  for  the  determination  of  principles  of  phys- 
ical education  has  swung  from  the  consideration  of  man 
as  composed  Of  so  many  muscles  to  a  point  that  views 
j  man  as  a  unity  of  mind  and  body,  with  spirit  or  soul  as  an 
essential  element  of  the  whole.  This  modern  basis  holds 
that  for  educational  purposes  man  cannot  be  dissected, 
the  organism  must  be  the  object  of  our  study;  and  that 
for  physical  education,  too  great  a  reliance  on  physiologic 
principles  with  resulting  neglect  of  the  social,  moral,  and 
spiritual  elements  in  life  produces  the  "  crude,  vulgar, 
self-seeking  individual"*  so  obnoxious  in  human  relation- 
ships and  so  dangerous  to  the  state  and  nation. 
I  In  fact,  physical  education  is  much  more  a  matter  of 
I  the  nervous  system  than  of  the  muscles.  It  ought  to  be 
considered  more  a  qualitative  than  a  quantitative  devel- 
opment after  all.  Hall  states  this  view  accurately:** 

Physical  education  is  for  the  sake  of  mental  and  moral  culture  and 
not  an  end  in  itself.  It  is  to  make  the  intellect,  feelings,  and  will  more 
vigorous,  sane,  supple,  and  resourceful. 

MacCunn  takes  this  view:*** 

Spinoza  makes  the  pregnant  remark  that  we  do  not  know  what  Body 

is  capable  of.    We  may  go  a  step  farther  and,  following  Aristotle, 

declare  that  we  shall  never  know,  till  Body  finds  its  true  function  as 

/instrument  of  fully  developed  soul.    For  materialism  consists,  not  in 

/  frankest  recognition  of  matter,  but  in  the  assignment  to  it  of  a  spurious 

;     supremacy  or  independence.    There  can  be  no  materialism  in  utmost 

i     emphasis  upon  physical  education  so  long  as '  Body  for  the  sake  of  Soul ' 

\  is  as  it  was  with  Plato,  the  presiding  principle  of  educational  action. 

Aims. — The  aims  of  physical  education  should  be  higher, 
therefore,  than  those  usually  given.  So  many  specialists 
in  this  field  are  only  interested  in  producing  perspira- 
tion. The  physiological  aim  is  not  enough.  There  should 
be  in  every  department  of  physical  education,  the  ideal 
and  aim  that  will  provide  inspiration  for  the  youth 
of  America.  "^ 

*  Wells,  H.  G.     The  Saturday  Evening  Post,  April  16,  1921,  p.  17. 

**  Hall,  G.  Stanley.     Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association,  1908,  p.  1015. 

***  MacCunn,  John,  The  Making  of  Character.     The  MacmiUan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1900. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  17 

President  Hall  in  speaking  of  the  need  for  a  leader  who 
shall  coordinate  the  mass  of  gymnastic  material  and  give 
an  ideal  setting  for  it  says  :* 

The  world  now  demands  what  this  country  has  never  had,  a  man 
.  .  .  who  shall  catch  the  spirit  of,  and  make  due  connections  with, 
popular  sports  past  and  present,  study  both  industry  and  education 
to  compensate  their  debilitating  effects,  and  be  himself  animated  by 
a  great  ethical  and  humanistic  hope  and  faith  in  a  better  future.  Such 
a  man  .  .  .  will  be  the  savior  to  the  bodies  of  men  and  will,  like  Jahn, 
feel  his  calling  and  work  sacred,  and  his  institution  ajemple  in  which 
every  physical  act  will  be  for  the  sake  of  the  soul. 

We  need  to  aim  higher  than  health,  than  victorious 
teams,  than  big  muscles,  than  profuse  perspiration. 
Physical  education  may  be  so  conducted  as  to  set  a  stand- 
ard of  living  that  will  surpass  the  average  and  the  common- 
place. There  should  be  in  such  a  scheme  of  things 
something  of  the  healthier  virtues  of  courage,  endurance, 
strength,  and  also  the  natural  attributes  of  play,  such  as 
imagination,  joyousness,  and  pride.  Physical  education 
should  never  be  satisfied  with  technique.  It  may  well 
aim  to  afford  an  opportunity  for  individuals  to  act  in 
situations  that  are  physically  wholesome,  mentally  stim- 
ulating and  satisfying,  and  socially  desirable.  The 
juggling  of  the  ring,  the  acrobatics  of  the  stage,  the  cheap 
accomplishment  anywhere  must  not  be  the  standard. 

Inspiration  and  organization  for  finer  manhood  and 
womanhood  in  all  expressions  of  life  cannot  come  from 
formal  calisthenics  and  gymnastics,  a  mixture  of  dry 
j  hygiene  and  tooth  brush  sanitation.    The  work  must! 
/  have  imagination,  spirit,  ideals.    The  play  and  games/ 
must  not  be  emasculated  but  must  be  filled  with  th^j 
spirit  of  vigor,  of  victory,  of  power,  of  clean,  fair,  nobl^ 
endeavor.     The  softness  that  tends  to  creep  into  sportjs '! 
under  the   petticoats    of    amateurism,    the   regimenta- 
tion and  exclusiveness  that  comes  so  often  with  classi- 

*  Hall,  G.  Stanley,  Adolescence,  p.  195.    D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1911. 


18  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

fication,  must  not  be  allowed.  The  athletic  aristocracy 
of  the  school  or  college  would  have  no  place  in  the  scheme 
of  such  physical  education,  and  a  wider  and  more  equi- 
table opportunity  for  athletics  for  all  would  be  the  aim  (9). 
The  fine,  fit,  prepared  body  and  mind,  healthy  and 
essentially  vigorous  and  courageous,  ready  and  fit  to  do 
its  task — this  may  be  the  goal  for  the  youth  of  America. 

We  have  been  concerned  up  to  this  point  with  indicating 
the  different  systems  with  their  defects.  We  have  stated 
briefly  the  emphasis  which  modern  physical  education  is 
beginning  to  place.  It  remains  at  this  point  to  set  forth 
in  some  detail  a  statement  of  the  aim  of  physical  education. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  matter  of  instruction  in  hygiene 
is  omitted,  except  as  it  may  be  incidental  to  the  physical 
education.  This  is  not  because  of  non-appreciation  of 
the  value  of  hygiene  but  because  for  the  purposes  of  this 
book  it  is  important  to  think  of  physical  education  and 
health  education  as  separate  and  distinct.  They  are  very 
closely  related,  however,  and  in  fact  should  be  conducted 
by  the  same  department.  In  a  limited  sense(health  educa- 
tion includes  physical  education;  the  latter  can  never 
wholly  include  the  former.) 

The  aim  of  physical  education. — Physical  education 
should  aim  to  provide  an  opportunity  for  the  individual  to  act 
in  situations  that  are  physically  wholesome,  mentally  stimulat- 
ing and  satisfying,  and  socially  sound.  It  may  be  noted 
that  this  aim  is  in  substantial  agreement  with  any  accept- 
able aim  of  general  education.  It  is  obvious  that  general 
education  would  be  more  acceptable  as  a  program  of  child 
nurture  if  greater  emphasis  were  placed  upon  physical  and 
social  values.  It  is  important  to  define  the  terms  of  the  aim 
as  stated  above.  Specifically,  physically  wholesome  means : 
1.  Adequate  provision  for  all  that  is  involved  in 
control  of  the  environment  in  gymnasium,  playground, 
and  athletic  field-air,  dust,  dirt,  suits,  showers,  etc. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  19 

2.  Adequate  provision  for  all  that  is  involved  in 
the  development  of  physical  strength  and  vitality  in 
accordance  with  the  needs  of  daily  life  and  also  of 
the  emergencies  and  crises  of  life  ( 10) .  This  provision 
includes  remedial  measures  for  individual  cases.  It 
must  also  provide  "that  margin  of  motor  activity"* 
essential  for  health  and  desired  physical  development. 

Specifically,  physically  wholesome  does  not  mean: 

1.  The  constant  seeking  of  other  values,  however 
worthy,  at  the  expense  of  the  physical;  for  example, 
second  grade  children  in  twenty  minute  lesson  doing 
pantomimic  and  expression  work  and  engaging  for 
two  and  one-half  minutes  only  in  activities  that  could 
be  classed  as  having  physiological  results,  i.e.  increase 
in  heart  rate  and  blood  pressure.    This  does  not  rule 
out  the  occasional  and  unusual  sacrifice  of  physical 
values  for  the  achievement  of  ends  worth  while  and 
otherwise  unobtainable.    Football  and  other  vigorous 
athletics  may  result  in  broken  bones,  and  occasionally 
in  death.    Some  of  the  moral  values  are  not  to  be 
achieved  in  any  other  way. 

2.  Development   of   physical  freaks — Marathon 
marvels  or  show  window  exhibitors. 

3.  The  extreme  forms  of  athletic  participation  as 
seen  in  boys'  and  girls'  school  athletics.    Not  infre- 
quently, the  boy  in  high  school  is  "burned  out"  by 
excessive  athletics. 

Specifically,  mentally  stimulating  and  satisfying  means : 

1.  Adequate  provision  for  development  of  initia- 
tive, leadership,  and  followership. 

2.  Adequate  provision  for  expression  of  racial  in- 
stincts and  desires,  with  recognition  that  nature  is 
not  infallible. 

*Wood,  Thomas  T>.,  Ninth  Year  Book,  Health  and  Education.    Parti.     National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education,  p.82. 


20  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

3.  Adequate  provision  for  satisfying  states  of 
affairs,  i.  e.  a  game  in  which  the  official  is  com- 
petent and  fair  gives  a  satisfying  mental  reaction. 

Specifically,  mentally  stimulating  and   satisfying   does 
not  mean: 

1.  Mental  gymnastics  as  evidenced  in  response- 
command  exercises  that  do  not  get  their  sanction  from 
the  principle  of  leadership  and  followership. 

2.  Provision  for  mental  activity  that  is  in  any 
way  annoying. 

Specifically,  socially  sound  means: 

1.  Adequate  provision  for  development  of  social 
and  moral  values  in  which  you  believe  and  for  which 
you  are  willing  to  work.  Such  provision  may  be  in 
essential  agreement  with  public  opinion  or  educational 
opinion. 

It  may  not  be  in  agreement  at  all,  but  can  be 
defended,  by  historical  fact  of  civilization  or  biology, 
e.g.  the  nature  of  man  and  the  influence  of  civiliza- 
tion; by  present  tendencies  and  movements  in  society, 
e.g.  the  growing  liberalism  in  all  forms  of  organized 
society;  or  by  probable  outcome  of  any  opposing  and 
antagonistic  principle,  e.g.  the  failure  of  posture  drills, 
disciplinary  drills,  etc.  Such  provision  must  make 
for  good  citizenship,  and  whether  that  concept  is 
founded  upon  a  communal  theory  of  government,  or 
a  super-state  theory,  or  the  theory  of  a  democracy, 
these  virtues  suggested  by  Bobbitt  (11)  must  reside 
in  all: 

a.  Service  to  society  now  and  to  the  unborn  of 
the  coming  generations. 

b.  Fair  dealing.    The  "give  and  take"  principle. 

c.  Truthfulness,  honesty. 


MODERN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  21 

d.  Loyalty  and  obedience  to  authority;  playing 
the  game  according  to  the  rules. 

e.  Modesty,  humility  as  contrasted  with   arro- 
gance.   Does  not  mean  piety. 

f .  Submission  to  group  opinion,  cooperation. 

g.  Courtesy,  thoughtfulness  for  others. 

h.    $eZ/-restraint,  se^f-control,  seZ/-discipline.  — 
i.     Gentleness,  mercy. 

The  import  of  this  aim  will  be  brought  out  in  subsequent 
chapters. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  PLUMMER,  EDWARD  M.    "Athletics  and  Games  of  the  Ancient 

Greeks."    American  Physical  Education  Review,   Vol.   II, 
p.  97;  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  1-93-157. 
An  authoritative  description  of  Greek  games. 

2.  Report  of  United  States  Commission  of  Education,  1891-2,  Vol.  I, 

pp.  483-484. 
Report  of  United  States  Commission  of  Education,  1897-8.  Vol.  I, 

pp.  522-539. 
LEONARD,  F.  E.    American  Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  IV, 

pp.  1-18;  Vol.  V,  pp.  18-39;  Vol.  IX,  pp.  227-243;  Vol.  X, 

pp.  1-19;  301-311;  Vol.  XI,  pp.  1-13. 
Excellent  statements  of  the  development  of  the  German  and 

Swedish  systems  of  gymnastics.     Dr.  Leonard  has  made 

careful  study  of  the  history  of  physical  education. 

3.  DEWEY,  JOHN.    Interest  and  Effort  in  Education,  Houghton 

Mifflin  Company,  1913. 
One  of  the  essential  books  for  study  in  consideration  of  the 

question  of  interest.    Very  valuable  as  stating  a  modern  view 

of  education. 
Ibid.    The  School  and  Society,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1915, 

2nd  ed. 
Ibid.     The  School  of  To-morrow,  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York 

City,  1915. 

Ibid.     The  School  and  the  Child,  Blackie  &  Son,  London,  1906. 
Three  stimulating  books  on  the  school  as  society's  means  of 

education.     The  School  of  To-morrow  predicts  what  the 

future  schools  will  be  like. 

4.  WOOD,  THOMAS  D.     "Health  and  Education."    Part  I,  Ninth 

Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
pp.  75-108,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1910. 


22  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

A  very  valuable  report  on  physical  education.  Keen  in  analysis 
of  the  problem,  forward-looking,  scientific,  this  report  may 
be  considered  the  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  theory 
of  physical  education  in  this  generation. 

6.    COOK,  H.  CALWELL.     The  Play  Way,  Frederick  A.  Stokes,  New 
York,  1919. 

A  stimulating  study  in  educational  nethod. 

6.  CABOT,  R.C.    "The  Soul  of  Play."    Atlantic  Monthly,  Novem- 

ber, 1910. 
An  incomparable  essay  giving  a  spiritual  interpretation  of  play. 

7.  THORNDIKE,    EDWARD   L.    Educational   Psychology,    Vol.    I, 

Teachers  CoUege,  1919. 

A  clear  and  comprehensive  study  of  the  nature  of  man.  A  most 
valuable  book  for  all  students  of  physical  education. 

8.  O'SHEA,  M.  V.    Mental  Development  and  Education,  Macmillan 

Company,  N.  Y.,  1921. 
A  very  useful  book. 

9.  FAUVEB,  EDWIN.    "A  suggestion  for  making  physical  training 

of  greater  value  to  the  college  student."    American  Physical 
Education  Review,  March,  1919,  p.  200. 

A  timely  article  on  the  failure  of  athletics  always  to  provide 
sports  that  can  be  pursued  after  school  days. 

10.  KING,  IRVING.  Psychology  of  Child  Development.  University  of 

Chicago  Press,  1904. 
OPPENHEIM,  NATHAN.     The  Development  of  the  Child,  Macmillan 

Company,  1910. 
Two  excellent  books  on  child  development. 

11.  BOBBITT,    FRANKLIN.     The    Curriculum,    Houghton    Mifflin 

Company,  Boston,  1918,  pp.  171-226. 

A  sane,  practical  discussion  of  the  curriculum  of  the  public 
school. 


CHAPTER  TWO 

GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  IN  THE  ORGANIZATION 

AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  WORK  OF 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Familiar  aims  in  physical  education. — It  is  proposed  at 
the  outset  to  discuss  critically  the  guiding  principles  often 
presented  to-day  as  a  basis  for  formulation  of  physical 
education  programs.  The  division  of  the  work  of  physical 
education  into  four  fields  is  not  so  common  to-day  as 
formerly  but  the  procedure  is  employed  frequently 
enough  to  warrant  a  study  of  the  basis  as  represented 
under  the  headings — corrective,  educational,  hygienic, 
and  recreative. 

These  aims,  comprehending  the  entire  program,  are 
entirely  unacceptable  as  set  forth  in  most  systems  of 
physical  education. 

1.  Corrective.     The  exercises  in  this  group  aim  to 
secure  good  posture  during  the  lessons  and  to  correct  bad 
posture  in  the  child. 

2.  Educational.    This  aim  has  been  defined  as  follows : 
"  We  seek  certain  exercsies  because  we  want  the  children 
to  learn  certain  exercises  themselves,  and  secondly,  we 
practice  certain  gymnastics  for  the  purpose  of  training  in 
form,  precision,  alertness,  control,  isolation,  coordination, 
and  inhibition." 

3.  Hygienic.    The  exercises  in  this  group  are  for  the 
purpose  of  stimulating  the  systems  of  the  body,  the  heart, 
lungs,  liver,  intestines,  etc.     It  seeks  to  get  exercise  in 
quantity  and  free  perspiration.    It  aims  at  health  ends. 

23 


24  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

4.  Recreative.  Under  this  heading,  activities  that 
give  pleasure  and  fun  are  introduced.  Games  and  dances 
are  types. 

Critical  study  of  the  above  aims. — In  reading  over  the 
above  aims  it  seems  like  the  most  elementary  and  simple 
procedure  to  ask  two  questions: 

1.  What  characteristics  or  elements  must  an  exercise 
have  hi  order  to  be  (a)  corrective;   (b)  educational;    (c) 
hygienic;  or  (d)  recreative? 

2.  In  physical  education,  what  activities,  old  or  new, 
accepted  or  proposed,  will  satisfy  in  letter  and  spirit  the 
above  characteristics  or  elements? 

But  when  the  questions  are  answered,  the  result  is  pro- 
found in  its  emphasis  upon  the  selection  of  material  that 
will  satisfy  the  answers  secured. 

Consideration  of  corrective  aim. — In  the  first  place, 
what  characteristics  must  an  exercise  or  procedure  in 
physical  education  have  in  order  to  be  corrective  of  bad 
posture?  It  may  be  stated  that  it  is  the  opinion  of  medical 
gymnasts  and  many  physical  educators  experienced  in 
physical  therapeutics,  that  for  corrective  results,  an 
exercise  must — 

1.  Be  repeated  frequently. 

2.  Be  sustained  and  slow  rather  than  abrupt. 

3.  Be  sufficiently  powerful  to  (a)  restore  to  nor- 
mal, or   (b)   maintain  at  normal,   or   (c)   tend  to 
approach  normal. 

4.  Awaken  interest  on  the  part  of  the  subject. 

5.  Be  an  exact  prescription  for  a  definitely  diag- 
nosed defect  or  deformity.    A  "shot  gun"  exercise 
cannot  be  accepted. 

When  these  answers  are  considered,  the  logical  conclu- 
sion follows  that  the  only  corrective  work  of  any  value  or 
significance  is  individual*  and  not  class  work.  The  exercise 

*  Drew,  Lillian,  Individual  Gymnastics,  Lea  and  Febiger,  Philadelphia,  1922. 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  25 

must  be  prescribed  following  an  examination,  and  the 
progress  of  the  case  must  be  noted  and  corrections  in 
procedure  made  when  necessary.  A  woman  worker  of 
over  twenty  years  experience  in  this  field  states  that  three- 
fourths  of  the  problem  is  arousing  in  the  child  the  desire 
to  be  straight  (which  is  best  accomplished  in  individual 
cases);  after  that  is  done,  the  exercises  are  only  a  rein- 
forcing and  sustaining  remedy.  They  are  necessary  but 
alone  they  are  worthless. 

It  must  be  clear  therefore  that  no  organization  of 
physical  education  will  seek  corrective  effects  in  general 
class  work.  Provision  must  be  made  for  individual  cor- 
rective gymnastics.  The  need  for  this  special  corrective 
work  is  illustrated  by  the  records  in  a  large  city  university 
of  students  who  had  graduated  from  the  public  schools  of 
the  same  city.  During  their  entire  time  in  the  schools  they 
had  been  given  exercises  for  posture.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  percentage  of  cases  needing  attention  is  given  and 
the  percentage  that  represents  city  pupils.  When  one 
remembers  that  only  the  most  favorably  situated  families 
send  their  children  to  the  university,  one  will  appreciate 
the  great  number  turned  out  from  the  public  schools  in 
need  of  corrective  gymnastics  of  the  individual  kind. 

Statistics  of  Freshmen  Women — Corrective  Gymnastics.  Forty-one 
per  cent  of  freshmen  women  are  recommended  for  corrective  gymnas- 
tics; 79  per  cent  of  these  are  resident — 21  per  cent  are  non-resident. 
(82  per  cent  of  the  entire  class  are  resident.) 

Classification  According  to  how  much  Work  is  Needed. 

A — Questionable 5  per  cent — of  these   67  per  cent  are  resident 

B— Mild 33  per  cent— of  these    73  per  cent  are  resident 

C — Medium 33  per  cent — of  these   79  per  cent  are  resident 

D — Severe 25  per  cent — of  these    93  per  cent  are  resident 

E — Very  severe 4  per  cent — of  these  100  per  cent  are  resident 

10  per  cent  are  feet  cases. 

90  per  cent  are  cases  of  lateral  curvature  and  posture. 

Statistics  of  Sophomore  Women — Corrective  Gymnastics.  Forty-three 
per  cent  of  sophomore  girls  are  recommended  for  corrective  gymnastics; 


26  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

87  per  cent  of  these  are  resident — 13  per  cent  are  non-resident.     (88  per 
cent  of  the  entire  sophomore  class  are  resident.) 

A — Questionable 17  per  cent — of  these   88  per  cent  are  resident 

B — Mild 35  per  cent — of  these   88  per  cent  are  resident 

C — Medium 33  per  cent — of  these   87  per  cent  are  resident 

D — Severe 13  per  cent — of  these  100  per  cent  are  resident 

E — Very  Severe 2  per  cent — of  these  100  per  cent  are  resident 

2  per  cent  are  feet  cases. 
98  per  cent  are  lateral  curvature  and  posture. 

Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood  estimates  the  number  of  children 
in  the  schools  in  need  of  corrective  attention  to  be  seventy- 
five  per  cent.  The  evidence  everywhere  indicates  the 
complete  failure  of  the  corrective  aim  as  applied  in 
practice. 

Consideration  of  the  educational  aim. — What  character- 
istics or  elements  must  an  exercise  have  in  order  to  be 
educational?  This  involves  in  the  very  nature  of  the  case 
a  definition  of  education.  If  education  is  preparation  for 
life,  if  education  is  training  for  efficient  citizenship,  if  edu- 
cation is  more  than  book  knowledge  or  traditional  prac- 
tices that  are  justified  only  by  their  age,  if  education  is 
opportunity  for  the  child  to  develop  and  unfold  to  its 
greatest  extent  and  under  the  most  favorable  environ- 
ment,— hi  short,  if  education  is  considered  as  a  process 
related  to  life  today  and  not  life  a  century  ago  or  fifty 
years  hence,  we  will  rest  content  with  whatever  expression 
may  be  made  so  long  as  the  spirit  of  the  definition  breathes 
its  application  to  life,  to  real  life  in  the  world  today. 

Attempting  to  answer  the  question,  therefore,  we  find 
that  in  order  to  be  educational  an  exercise  must — 

1.  Have  an  aim 

2.  Be  interesting  and  have  meaning 

3.  Be  expressive  of  an  idea,  thought,  or  feeling 

4.  Function  in  the  life  of  the  individual 

a.     Either  as  a  practical,  utilitarian  motor   pro- 
cedure making  him  more  efficient,  or 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  27 

b.  As  an  aesthetic  acquisition,  capable  of  giving 
pleasure  to  self  or  others,  or 

c.  As  training  in  social  or  moral  qualities  of  good 
citizenship. 

These  answers  indicate  how  impoverished  has  been  the 
vision  of  those  seeking  "  educational  aims/'  who  saw  their 
realization  in  the  ability  to  stretch  the  left  arm  sideward 
and  the  right  arm  upward  on  word  of  command  from  a 
teacher.  Physical  education  is  educative  according  to  the 
view  point  and  emphasis.  It  has  wonderful  latent  possi- 
bilities. It  stands  at  a  point  in  the  history  of  man  when 
its  contribution  to  practical  and  effective  citizenship  is 
most  needed  and  can  with  greatest  prospects  be  given. 

These  questions  rule  out  at  once  that  mass  of  aimless, 
uninteresting,  inexpressive,  and  functionless  type  of 
material  as  represented  by  the  gymnastics  of  the  Swedes 
or  Germans  or  that  of  certain  mongrel  systems. 

When  the  second  question  is  asked,  "What  types  of 
activity  will  satisfy  the  above  characteristics?'7  the 
answer  would  seem  to  present  the  following: 

1.  Games,  sports,  and  athletics 

2.  Dancing — folk,     characteristic,     and    natural 
(cf.  Chapter  III) 

3.  Exercises  on  apparatus.    The  usual  ones  need] 
revision  to  be  satisfactory 

4.  Natural  gymnastics  (cf.  Chapter  III) 

5.  Club  and  camp  crafts 

There  is  a  place  for  drill  in  physical  education.  The 
logical  place  for  it  is  in  the  practice  of  the  parts  of  activi- 
ties which  are  interesting  and  vital  to  the  child.  A  child 
has  no  inherent  interest  in  the  "yard  e"  position  nor  in 
the  "fall  out"  nor  in  the  "lunge,"  but  may  be  very 
much  interested  in  practicing  the  technique  of  certain 
games,  dances,  swimming,  and  other  natural  and  racial 
activities. 


28  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

A  comparison  of  the  characteristics  of  educational  ac- 
tivities in  physical  education  will  show  how  rich  the  avail- 
able material  is  and  how  important  for  morale  physical 
education  becomes  in  the  school  curriculum.  The  presi- 
dent of  one  of  our  colleges  recently  remarked,  "The 
director  of  physical  education  has  a  greater  opportunity 
for  character  training  of  our  students  than  any  other 
officer  of  our  college."  Here  then  is  complete  justi- 
fication for  the  insistence  that  our  program  function 
in  the  life  of  boys  and  girls  and  for  their  sake  and  for 
then-  country's  sake  that  it  present  a  direction  in  aim 
and  effort  that  seeks  fundamental,  social,  and  moral 
qualities. 

Consideration  of  the  hygienic  aim. — What  character- 
istics must  an  exercise  have  in  order  to  be  hygienic? 
Certain  misconceptions  prevalent  in  the  popular  mind  must 
be  corrected.  We  understand  that  hygienic  means  pro- 
ductive of  health.  Furthermore,  the  narrow,  partial,  and 
incomplete  appraisement  of  the  nature  of  man  and  hence 
of  factors  in  his  health  must  be  revised.  It  should  not 
be  necessary  to-day  to  say  that  man  is  a  psycho-physical 
unit.  Mind  and  body  are  one.  It  is  impossible  in  any 
rational  procedure  to  consider  one  and  neglect  the  other. 
Therefore,  it  is  amateurish  in  the  extreme  to  talk  of 
health  effects  from  muscular  activity  when  the  entire  emo- 
tional and  mental  experience  of  the  individual  is  going 
through  unwholesome  phases.  The  boy  or  girl  who  bends 
the  trunk  sideward  for  the  hygienic  purpose  of  alternately 
squeezing  or  relaxing  the  liver  and  who  throughout  the 
activity  is  filled  with  the  quite  common  gymnasium  reac- 
tion expressed  in  these  words,  "I  hate  gymnasium  work," 
can  hardly  be  said  to  obtain  hygienic  effects  on  his  nervous 
system.  The  difficulty  in  this  instance  as  in  others  enu- 
merated is  that  the  child  has  been  dissected  and  the 
muscles,  or  the  liver,  or  the  sweat  glands  have  been  stimu- 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  29 

lated  to  activity  and  all  the  time  the  child,  as  a  psycho- 
physical  unit,  has  been  ignored. 

We  shall  refuse  therefore  to  concede  as  hygienic  any 
exercise  which  does  not  in  some  degree  produce  all  of  the 
following: 

1.  Wholesome  activity  of  the  circulatory  system, 
showing  in  increased  heart  rate  or  blood  pressure. 

2.  Wholesome  activity  of  the  respiratory  system 
coming  as  a  result  of  increased  body  need  for  elimina- 
tion of  carbon  dioxide  and  supply  of  oxygen.    This 
activity  is  to  be  automatic  and  to  be  initiated,  di- 
rected, and  controlled,  not  by  the  teacher,  but  by  the 
respiratory  center  in  the  medulla,  which  exists  for 
this  purpose.     This  rules  out  at  once  respiratory 
gymnastics  as  commonly  used.  . 

3.  Wholesome  activity  of  the  excretory  system. 
This  characteristic  would  be  evidenced  in  increased 
perspiration  and  increased  elimination  of  bodily  waste. 

4.  Wholesome  activity  of  the  muscular  system. 

5.  Wholesome  activity  of  the  nervous  system. 
This  would  be  expressed  in  evidences  of  enjoyment, 
pleasure,  and  happiness.     The  nervous  system  ex- 
presses hygienic  states  if  joy  is  predominant.    De- 
pression, fear,  distaste  are  unwholesome  in  their  effect 
upon  the  nervous  system.    In  this  respect  therefore 
that  activity  which  gives  joy  is  hygienic. 

Notice  should  be  taken  of  the  use  of  the  word  wholesome 
in  the  five  paragraphs  above.  We  mean  to  convey  here 
all  that  is  implied  in  this  word,  and  to  condemn  in  general 
as  unhygienic,  feats  of  strength,  marathon  races,  prolonged 
endurance  athletic  contests.  In  any  case  all  such  activities 
must  be  judged  by  whether  the  effects  are  wholesome. 

With  the  above  characteristics  in  mind,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  following  activities  will  be  satisfying  to  the 
demands  made: 


30  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

1.  Games,  sports,  and  athletics.    Manifestly  not 
all  games  or  athletic  sports  can  be  accepted  for  all. 
Boys'  basketball  for  girls,  marathon  races  for  high 
school  pupils,  endurance  contests  for  children,  would 
come  under  the  ban.    In  general,  though,  games  of  all 
kinds,  under  proper  supervision,  will  give  wholesome 
activity  for  the  child, — for  the  child  considered  as  a 
psycho-physical  unit  and  not  considered  as  a  set  of 
muscles  covering  a  liver  and  intestines. 

2.  Dancing — folk,  characteristic,  and  natural. 

3.  Natural  gymnastics  used  for  drill  purposes  in 
which  the  individual  finds  joy  and  satisfaction  in 
practicing  a  technique  that  will  improve  the  per- 
formance of  a  real  game  which  interests  him. 

4.  Apparatus.    For  boys  and  men  and  for  some 
girls,  exercises  on  apparatus  will  satisfy  the  above 
characteristics.    This  is  the  least  valuable  and  useful 
of  the  four  groups  suggested. 

Consideration  of  the  recreative  aim. — Desirable  motor 
activities  have  usually  been  offered  when  the  recreative 
ami  has  been  considered,  and  yet  it  is  important  to  ask 
what  characteristics  physical  activity  must  possess  in  order 
to  be  recreative,  so  that  needs  in  this  field  may  be  served 
appropriately  at  all  times. 

It  would  seem  that  the  following  characteristics  are  in- 
herent in  recreational  physical  activity: 

1.  Interest.     The  activities  must  be  well  known 
enough  to  be  enjoyed,  but  they  must  not  be  so  well 
known  as  to  become  monotonous.    Variety  must  be 
offered  and  yet  routine  respected  enough  to  give  the 
pleasures  that  come  with  the  old  and  familiar.    These 
are  vital  elements  of  interest. 

2.  Adaptability.    The  activity  must  be  gentle  or 
vigorous  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  hour. 
The  group  is  to  be  served  according  to  its  needs. 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  31 

3.     Objectivity.     The  individual  to  recreate  com- 
pletely must  forget  self  and  live  in  the  objective  world 
of  the  imagination.    Action  must  be  directed  outward 
in  expressive  forms  in  which  self  is  not  thought  of  and 
consciousness  of  action  is  absent  entirely. 
With  the  above  characteristics  in  mind,  it  would  seem 
that  the  following  activities  would  be  completely  satis- 
fying: 

1 .  Games.    In  this  group,  new  and  unknown  games 
or  games  involving  great  skill  to  learn,  would  not  be  con- 
sidered.   The  games  could  be  quiet  or  fairly  vigorous, 
but  they  must  be  well-known  and  liked  or  at  least  so 
simple  to  learn  that  their  technique  could  be  mastered 
quickly.     Stunt  games  of  various  kinds  would  be 
appropriate. 

2.  Athletic  sports.     Golf,  tennis,  swimming,  and 
horseback  riding  for  those  who  know  the  technique  of 
the  sport  and  enjoy  its  situations  indicate  what  is 
recreative  in  this  field.    It  is  important  to  emphasize 
that  for  recreation  purposes  the  sport  must  be  familiar 
and  the  skill  in  it  sufficient  to  produce  pleasure. 

3.  Dancing — folk  dances,  especially  types  such  as 
the  English  Country  Dances,  social  dancing,  and  at 
times  natural  dancing.     The  primary  element  here 
that  makes  for  recreation  is  the  rhythm,  expressed  in 
movement  and  music. 

4.  Apparatus.    Certain  individuals  get  real  recrea- 
tion in  performing  stunts  and  feats  on  apparatus. 
The  giant  swing,  the  fly  away,  the  dislocate,  and  other 
acrobatic  acts  may  be  accepted  for  a  few.    They  are 
not  worth  the  effort  required  to  accomplish  their 
performance.    They  offer  a  limited  appeal. 

5.  Natural    gymnastics.     Figure   marching    and 
exercises  in  mass  groups  may  at  times  of  exhibition 
be  recreative,  but  usually  the  strain  of  "making  a 


32  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

mistake"  is  so  great  that  these  activities  are  rarely 
to  be  accepted  as  satisfactory  recreation  for  school 
children.  Parades  on  special  days  can  be  made  worth 
while.  Even  for  adults,  parades,  either  with  or  with- 
out special  costume,  give  real  recreational  results. 
Skipping,  balance  running,  leaping,  climbing,  and 
jumping  may  be  considered  recreative.  Surely  a 
great  deal  of  the  material  given  by  Pearl  and  Brown  * 
may  be  considered  as  recreative. 

Present  methods  of  organization  and  administration  in 
physical  education  as  compared  with  other  fields. — In  city 
school  systems,  the  main  part  of  the  work  consists  in 
gymnastic  lessons  arranged  in  progression  that  is  based  on 
balance,  difficulty  in  coordination,  or  strength  require- 
ment. The  lessons  provide,  in  the  main,  movements  of 
the  arms,  legs,  and  trunk,  and  some  marching;  a  game  or 
folk  dance  may  be  added.  The  exercises  may  be  from  the 
Swedish  system  without  hand  apparatus  or  may  follow 
the  German  type  and  involve  wand  or  dumb-bell.  The 
exercises  are  selected  with  a  view  to  producing  correct 
posture,  muscular  strength,  and  coordination  (1).  The 
pupils  are  "put  through"  these  exercises  and  no  scientific 
effort  is  made  to  determine  whether  the  work  accomplished 
what  is  predicated  in  the  theory;  too  little  attention  is 
given  to  see  if  the  pupils  are  interested  in  the  work.  No 
well  directed  effort  is  made  to  instruct  the  pupil;  the 
effort  is  to  exercise  him. 

Now  in  this  connection  it  is  important  to  ask  how  such 
a  method  compares  with  the  newer  methods  in  general 
education  and  the  practice  in  other  fields  of  life. 

1.  Compared  with  newer  educational  methods.  In 
general  education  procedure,  efforts  are  centered  definitely 
in  examining  and  grading  pupils  not  in  an  arbitrary  way, 
but  in  a  scientific  way.  Mental  tests  are  worked  out  that 

*  Pearl  and  Brown.     Health  by  Stunts.     The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.,  1919. 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  33 

provide  by  means  of  scales  a  method  for  measuring  ability 
in  arithmetic,  language,  writing.  The  intelligence  tests  in 
use  are  those  of  Binet-Simon,  and  the  Stanford  Revision 
of  the  Binet-Simon.  For  college  students  the  Thorndike 
tests  developed  for  the  army  are  in  wide  use. 

In  short  in  dealing  with  subjects  peculiarly  mental  in 
nature,  Trabue's  (2),  Thorndike's  (3),  and  Hillegas'  (4) 
scales  determine  and  place  the  pupil  quite  accurately. 

Frequently  in  physical  education  work  of  the  formal 
kind,  grade  and  high  school  pupils  exercise  in  the  same 
class.  There  is  practically  nothing  in  physical  education 
that  provides  training  for  the  " physical  defective"  on  the 
basis  of  scientific  measurement.  There  is  greatly  needed 
some  method  for  determining  scientific  classification  re- 
garding the  motor  development  of  the  pupil,  in  which  motor 
ability  and  not  muscle  size  is  measured.  A  rating  test 
that  would  give  the  motor  quotient  (M.Q.)  has  possibili- 
ties nearly  as  valuable  for  education  as  the  intelligence 
quotient  (I.Q.).  The  old  efforts  of  anthropometry  which 
measured  the  size  of  the  biceps,  chest,  and  waist,  told 
nothing  regarding  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  coordinate 
his  muscles  in  an  emergency,  or  to  use  the  muscles  for 
effective  organic  action  in  the  common  acts  of  life,  such 
as  standing,  sitting,  walking,  running. 

2.  The  methods  in  use  in  physical  education  have 
nothing  in  common  with  the  world  of  business.  The  well 
organized  and  administered  business  seeks  to  carry  on  its 
activities  after  careful— 

a.  Determination  of  the  demand  for  its  goods  and 
supply  in  relation  to  it.    In  some  cases,  definite  and 
careful  effort  is  made  to  increase  the  demand. 

b.  Determination  of  the  capacity  of  the  market 
to  use  the  particular  goods  sent  into  that  market.    It 
would  be  an  ill-fated  business  that  sent  fur-lined 
coats  to  the  natives  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  without 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


determining  whether  or  not  the  natives  could  or 
would  use  the  goods. 

c.  Determination  of  needs  of  people  using  the  line 
of  goods  produced  or  marketed  by  the  business. 
Endeavor  to  supply  the  needs. 

Now  physical  education  in  the  formal  systems  makes  no 
determination  of  the  pupil's  needs,  ability  to  use,  or  de- 
mand for,  the  activities  of  the  physical  educator.  The 
statement  of  needs  so  often  made  is  an  assumption.  The 
lack  of  exercise,  the  urgency  for  muscular  activity  does  not 
mean  a  need  for  formal  arm,  leg,  and  trunk  exercises  that 
are  produced  and  taught  without  any  reference  to  the 
ability  of  boys  and  girls  to  use  them  in  life,  to  be  interested 
in  them,  and  to  benefit  from  their  use. 

If  physical  education  attempts  to  be  modern  and  pro- 
gressive, it  must  begin  to  seek  standards  for  motor 
activity  and  to  present  its  program  with  reference  to 
the  child's  psycho-physical  needs.  Moreover  the  wants 
of  the  nation  are  so  great  that  a  new  organization 
of  physical  education  is  imperative.  The  results  of 
the  draft  and  the  close  of  the  war  have  presented 
two  problems  of  paramount  importance  to  physical 
/Educators: 

1.  The  need  for  promotion  and  conservation  of  physi- 
cal vigor. 

\       2.    The  need   for   development   of   fine   qualities   of 
\citizenship. 

Need  for  physical  vigor  and  good  citizenship.  —  The 
Provost  Marshal  General  reported  in  January,  1918,  on 
the  rejections  of  men  called  in  the  Selective  Service  Draft 
for  the  National  Army,  as  follows: 

Total  called  .....................................  3,082,945 

Total  examined  by  local  boards  ....................  2,510,706 

Total  rejected  by  local  boards  for  physical  reasons  —    730,756 
Percentage  rejected  of  those  examined  ..............     29.11 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  35 

To  this  percentage  of  rejections  by  the  local  boards 
must  be  added  the  rejections  by  the  Medical  Corps  at  the 
cantonments.  The  Medical  Corps  rejected  from  two  to 
eleven  per  cent  of  those  certified.  The  total  rejections 
therefore  must  be  somewhere  between  30.53  and  36.80 
per  cent.  In  the  main  the  chief  causes  of  rejections  were 
remediable  and  preventable  by  a  little  care  and  by  ade- 
quate and  wise  physical  education. 

The  loss  in  physical  vigor  in  the  United  States,  through 
lack  of  adequate  provision  for  health  care  and  physical 
training  is  incalculable.*  There  is  tremendous  need  today 
for  better  training  for  citizenship.  The  school  is  the  logical 
place  for  the  training  of  leaders  and  followers  of  the  right 
kind  and  there  should  be  provided  in  the  modern  organi- 
zation of  physical  education  a  chance  for  the  boys  and  girls 
to  know  the  qualities  to  look  for  in  leaders,  to  exercise 
themselves  in  choosing  leaders,  and  to  practice  in  following 
leaders. 

Good  citizenship  does  not  suddenly  descend  upon  one 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  It  represents  a  totality  of  re- 
sponse made  up  of  favorable  and  desirable  reactions,  many 
times  repeated,  in  situations  of  less  importance.  Loyalty 
to  a  team  may  very  well  be  the  beginning  of  loyalty  to  the 
nation  and  loyalty  to  a  team  in  the  face  of  continued  defeats 
is  provocative  of  something  like  the  spirit  that  worked  in 
the  hearts  of  those  at  Valley  Forge  and  in  the  Wilderness. 

Physical  education  in  its  clubs  and  teams,  its  Scout  troops, 
and  other  outdoor  organizations  must  seek  these  larger 
aims.  The  material  to  be  used  is  that  of  games  and  sports 
and  natural  activities.  The  very  clear  way  in  which  games 
and  sports  are  important  in  developing  physical  vigor 
on  the  one  hand  and  certain  desirable  social  values  on  the 
other  is  well  expressed  by  Hetherington  and  Ehler  (5). 

*  Williams,  Jesse  Feiring      "  The  Conservation  of  the  Nation's  Most  Valuable  Resources." 
Educational  Review.     Vol.  56,  No.  4,  Nov.,  1918. 


36  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

With  this  fundamental  viewpoint  in  mind,  it  would  seem 
that  the  rational  approach  in  the  organization  and  ad- 
ministration of  physical  education  should  not  be  the 
formal  and  traditional  one. 

Organization  should  consider  the  nature  of  the  elements 
organized. — In  carrying  out  the  work  for  physical  educa- 
tion, in  selecting  the  types  of  work  that  will  be  of  most 
value  and  have  the  greatest  appeal,  the  physical  nature 
and  instinctive  reactions  of  the  individual  must  be  con- 
sidered. The  teacher  of  physical  education  must  know  the 
physical,  psychic,  and  social  characteristics  of  children,  the 
time  and  manner  of  development.  That  critical  period  of 
adolescence  must  be  studied  carefully  and  the  essential 
changes  noted.  This  study  of  the  characteristics  of  boys 
and  girls  requires  keen  analysis  of  these  characteristics  in 
order  to  decide  intelligently  what  achievements  are  valu- 
able. Then  the  teacher  is  in  a  position  to  determine  what 
material  should  be  used  to  secure  the  ends  that  have  been 
selected  as  worth  while  in  the  light  of  an  understanding  of 
the  nature  of  boys  and  girls  at  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment. Any  organization  of  material  that  proceeds  without 
this  fundamental  approach  in  the  study  of  child  nature  is 
unscientific.  There  is  abundant  material  of  a  scientific 
kind  which  may  serve  for  the  beginning  of  this  study. 
Fiske,  Thorndike,  Lee,  Tyler,  Baldwin,  Hall,  Johnson, 
McDougal,  and  Trotter  will  give  authoritative  statements. 
(6).  This  study  will  reveal  the  important  fact  that  chil- 
dren are  not  abbreviated  adults.  Moreover  the  psychic 
factors  will  be  recognized.  It  is  important  to  state  that 
the  child  as  a  personality  seeking  to  adjust  to  a  complex 
world  of  adults  is  the  guide  for  the  organization  and 
administration  of  the  program  of  physical  education. 

In  seeking  to  understand  the  needs  of  the  child  in  all 
aspects  of  its  development  and  to  provide  an  opportunity 
for  the  child  to  express  its  instinctive  guides  and  urges, 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  37 

there  should  be  not  less  but  more  appreciation  of  the  need 
of  the  child  for  an  active  physical  life. 

Organization  should  encompass  the  physical  needs  of 
the  child,  as  shown  in  its  growth  and  development. — It  is 
not  sufficient  to  know  the  average  chest  girth  of  20,000 
children  of  a  certain  age  and  then  devise  an  exercise  that 
will  enlarge  a  child's  chest  to  the  average  for  his  age.  Any 
such  method  is  not  only  fruitless  of  achievement  of  physi- 
cal vigor  but  indeed  subversive  of  health  and  physical 
power.  It  is  not  complimentary  to  all  those  who  have 
been  working  in  this  field  to  say  that  in  the  main  such 
has  been  the  method.  Exercise  for  the  arms,  chest,  back, 
and  legs!  Exercises  for  the  circulatory  and  respiratory 
systems! 

The  point  is  emphasized  here  that  the  physical  needs  of 
the  child  must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  human  evolu- 
tion; that  the  sort  of  things  man  has  done  in  becoming 
what  he  is  remains  the  best  guide  as  to  what  will  promote 
and  conserve  his  physical  vigor.  The  physical  educator 
should  know  the  measurements  of  children  in  different 
age  groups,  he  should  be  familiar  with  standards  of  favor- 
able types,  but  more  than  that  he  must  understand  the 
essential  biologic  needs  of  children  and  adults.  The  aver- 
age lung  capacity  of  individuals  of  a  certain  height  will  be 
helpful  in  telling  if  an  individual  is  sub-  or  super-normal 
in  chest  mobility,  but  more  significant  is  it  to  understand 
the  evolutionary  basis  for  the  appearance  and  functioning 
of  the  vital  systems  of  the  body.  The  use  of  the  funda- 
mental muscles  and  the  proper  selection  of  activities  to 
provide  for  fundamental  rather  than  accessory  muscular 
action  is  paramount.  How  children  grow,  the  tendencies 
at  different  periods,  accelerations  and  retardations,  pubes- 
cent changes — these  are  of  importancej^fcfc  as  a  back- 
ground for  these  lines  and  colors,  mus«  He  picture  of 
the  child  in  evolution.  This  is  signjBRt  because  of 


38  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

the  necessity  for  physical,  as  indeed  for  all  education,  to 
adjust  its  efforts  in  harmony  with  the  great  force  of  nature. 

Proper  consideration  of  the  needs  of  the  child  requires 
that  boys  and  girls  be  separated  for  their  physical  educa- 
tion at  the  beginning  of  pubertal  changes  and  onset  of 
adolescence.  This  separation  in  most  places  will  occur  at 
the  end  of  the  fourth  grade.  In  some  schools  they  may 
work  together  in  the  gymnasium  through  the  sixth  grade 
but  never  after  that.  At  times  separation  may  be  advised 
at  the  end  of  the  fifth  grade. 

Children  should  be  grouped  in  classes  according  to 
their  physiological  age  and  group  motives  and  guides.— 
Children  of  widely  separated  grades  should  not  be  brought 
into  the  same  class.  The  physiological  age  of  the  children 
is  to  be  considered  and  so  far  as  possible  should  control  in 
the  selection  of  classes.  Practically  in  school  systems  as 
constituted  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  physical  educator 
proceed  according  to  class  organization.  This  is  not  fatal 
and  provides,  with  careful  administration,  a  satisfactory 
class  organization. 

The  gymnasium  classes  should  be  broken  up  into  groups. 
The  groups  should  be  natural  in  formation  and  conform  to 
group  motives,  group  performance,  and  age  (physiologi- 
cal) (7).  The  group  plan  requires  a  different  type  of  work 
and  involves  the  free  use  of  leaders  from  the  groups.  This 
necessity  makes  for  success  in  achieving  the  desirable 
social  values  and  training  that  physical  education  can 
give.  The  use  of  the  Boy  Scout  and  the  Girl  Scout  organi- 
zation in  the  school  is  helpful  in  this  connection. 

A  new  spirit. — The  day  has  passed  when  any  department 
could  feel  that  it  was  meeting  its  problems  by  providing 
three  ten-minute  lessons  a  week  in  formal  exercises.  The 
recent  state-^fckiws  are  reflecting  the  awakened  interest  in 
and  demand^  Mnes,  scout  activities,  recreational  clubs, 
camping,  dev^fcaent  of  leadership,  and  group  training 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  39 

in  activities  that  avoid  the  Prussian  virtues  on  the  one 
hand  and  mob  emotionalism  and  action  on  the  other. 
Gymnastics  will  remain  with  us,  as  they  are  needed,  but 
revised  and  fashioned  in  new  forms. 

The  health  values  of  the  program  are  prominent  in  the 
foreground  and  rightly  so,  but  they  are  not  sustained  by 
the  old  fallacies  of  the  Swedes  and  Germans,  which  at  one 
time  had  the  sanction  that  historically  is  given  to  the 
Medes  and  Persians.  The  health  values  are  based  upon  a 
study  of  the  whole  nature  of  the  child  and  not  upon  an 
anatomical  dissection  of  its  musculature  alone. 

The  profession  is  awakening  to  the  strategic  position  in 
which  the  teacher  and  director  of  physical  education  is 
placed  with  reference  to  guidance  in  the  matter  of  moral 
problems.  The  import  of  this  is  not  to  be  neglected. 

The  significance  of  physical  education  in  the  lives  of 
boys  and  girls  in  school  is  indicated  quite  clearly  by  Button 
and  Snedden  (8). 

Physical  education  broadly  includes  all  of  the  means  which  contribute 
to  physical  well-being,  comprising  nurture  and  a  favorable  environment 
for  growth,  exercise,  and  work,  as  well  as  corrective  and  curative  activ- 
ities. The  attainment  of  the  ends  of  physical  education  implies  not 
only  control  of  the  ends  of  physical  environment  of  the  child,  but  the 
deliberate  formation  of  habits,  the  imparting  of  knowledge  of  hygiene, 
and  the  stimulation  of  the  better  ideals  of  physical  efficiency.  .  .  . 

The  relative  importance  of  physical  education  in  this  broad  sense  is 
such  that  it  should  undoubtedly  be  given  first  place  in  a  completely 
integrated  scheme  of  social  economy, — what  is  called  mental  discipline, 
and  the  development  of  the  scientific  attitude,  is  ultimately  common  to 
all,  and  is  not  in  any  sense  the  exclusive  possession  of  cultural  education. 
Hence,  in  so  far  as  the  administration  of  public  schools  takes  account 
of  physical  education,  it  should  attach  to  it  more  importance  than  to 
any  other  division  as  far  as  attitude  and  appreciation  are  concerned. 

Department  schedules. — The  administrator  of  a  depart- 
ment of  physical  education  has  the  problem  of  schedule 
making  for  the  activities  for  which  he  is  r^fconsible.    He- 
should  have  the  ready  cooperation  of  the  |K>ol  principal, 
deans,  and  general  faculties.    The  moderF  administrator 


40 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


will  see  in  the  field  of  physical  education,  not  only  oppor- 
tunities to  guide  and  control  physical  exercises,  sports, 
and  games,  but  also  the  closely  related  field  of  character 
training  and  personal  health  problems.  His  schedule  will 
involve  appreciation  of  more  than  is  printed  in  the  school 
announcement.  Elsewhere  has  been  presented  the  details 
of  organization  of  material;  it  would  seem  important  to 
state  here  in  connection  with  the  general  organization  of 
the  department  the  point  of  view  to  be  held  in  making 
schedules.  This  point  of  view  includes  an  appreciation  of 
the  biologic  requirements  of  children. 

From  observation  of  activities  and  from  estimated 
records  and  schedules  Hetherington*  presents  the  following 
table  showing  the  distribution  of  activities  by  age  periods : 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ACTIVITIES  BY  AGE  PERIODS 
Total 

average  Big 

Age  waking  hours  muscle  Manual  Linguistic   Automatic 
0-1 

1  9-| 

2  10  —  1 

3  11-*  .    .  2  ..  2 

4  12  .    .  2  ..  2-1 

5  12-i  4-|  2-1          2-|  2-| 

6  12-f  4-f  2-f          2-|  2-* 

7  13  5  3-i          2  + 

8  13-|  5-i  3-1          2-1 

9  13-f  6  3-f         2  + 

10  14-  6  3-|          2-1 

11  14-  5-f  3-i          2-| 

12  14-+  5  4 

13  14-|+  4-J  4 

14  15  4+  4-i 

15  15-|  4-  4-f 

16  15-f  3-i  4-f 

17  16-  3+  4-f 

18  16  2-|  5-i 


Doing 
nothing 


19 
20 


16 
16 


* 


5-f 
5-1 


3 
3-i 

3-f 

4 

4-i 

4-f 

5- 

5 

5-i 


2-1 

2 

2 

2  + 

2 

2 

2-1 

2-i 

2-f 

2-f 

3- 

3 

3 

3 


*  Hetheringtoa,  Ciarl^  American  Physical  Education  Review.    May,  1917,  p.  251. 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES 


41 


This  schedule  by  Hetherington  would  indicate  that 
physical  education  has  been  assigned  entirely  too  little* 
tune  in  school  programs.  By  "big  muscle  activities" 
Hetherington  means  "spontaneous  and  general  locomo- 
tion: locomotion  with  toy  machines,  animals,  etc;  spon- 
taneous or  playful  gymnastics;  games;  dancing;  aquatics." 

In  an  effort  to  represent  the  necessary  amount  of  time 
in  the  several  activities  "  essential  at  each  age  for  develop- 
ment," the  following  chart  (Fig.  1)  is  reproduced.* 


Hours 
of  Day 


CURVE  OF  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ACTIVITIES 

Ages      . 
1,2     8     4     5     6     7-^8     9   10    11    J2   13  14=15    16  *7    18    19   20   21    22 


3      4    15    16    17    18    19    20   21    22 

Fig.  1.  Curve  A  B  in  relation  to  the  base  line  represents  the  normal  hours  awake  at 
each  age  period.  The  space  between  A  B  and  G  H  represents  the  time  devoted  to  routine 
automatic  adjustment,  leaving  the  time  indicated  below  G  H  for  activity  of  educational 
significance.  Curve  C  D  in  relation  to  the  base  line  gives  the  amount  of  time  necessary 
for  big  muscle  activities  at  each  age  period.  Curve  E  F  in  relation  to  the  base  line  gives 
the  amount  of  time  indicated  by  these  observations  for  manual  activities.  Curve  E'  F' 
represents  curve  E  F  added  to  curve  C  D,  thus  giving  the  time  devoted  to  both  big  muscle 
and  manual  activities.  The  space  between  E'  F'  and  G  H  give^the  time  for  special 
linguistic  activities. 

*  Hetherington,  Clark.     American  Physical  Education  Renew.     May,  1917,  p.  251. 


42  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  importance  of  this  study  for  education  is  the  con- 
sideration to  be  given  to  the  distribution  of  studies  and 
big  muscle  and  manual  activities  in  the  school  curriculum. 
It  is  to  be  pointed  out  therefore,  that  the  method  of 
assigning  subjects  of  study  for  the  child  without  pro- 
viding for  the  manual  and  big  muscle  activities  is 
unscientific  and  dangerous  and  from  a  modern  viewpoint 
disastrous.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  big  muscle  and 
manual  activities  cannot  be  properly  cared  for  by  assigning 
them  to  fag  ends  of  the  curriculum. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1 .  CRAMPTON,  C .  WARD .    "A  New  System  of  Physical  Training". 

American  Physical  Education  Review,  October,  1911. 
A  clear  statement  of  the  theory  of  the  formalist  in  physical 
education. 

2.  TRABTJE'S  Completion-Test  Language  Scales,  Bureau  of  Publica- 

tions, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City. 

3.  THORNDIKE'S  Reading  Scale  and  Handwriting  Scale,  Bureau  of 

Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New 
York  City. 

4.  HILLEGAS'  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  English  Composition. 

Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York  City. 

These  three  scales  will  give  a  clear  presentation  of  the  method 
of  procedure  in  measuring  such  abilities. 

5.  HETHERINGTON,     CLARK    W.    "The    Demonstration    Play 

School."     University  of  California  Publications.    Education, 

Vol.  V,  No.  2,  July  30,  1914. 
EHLER,  GEO.  W.     "  The  Place  of  Gymnastics  and  Athletics  in 

the  Program  of  a  Department  of  Physical  Education." 

American  Physical  Education  Review,  March,  1916,  pp.  135- 

142. 
Two  excellent  articles  giving  a  basis  for  physical  education  that 

can  be  accepted  on  physiological  and  psychological  grounds. 

6.  FISKE,  G.  W.    Boy  Life  and  Self -Government.  Association  Press, 

New  York,  1919. 
THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  I,  Teachers 

CoUege^STew  York  City. 
LEE,  Jos^e.    Play  in  Education,  The  Macmillan  Company, 

New  York,  1916. 


GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  43 

TYLER,  J.  M.  Growth  and  Education,  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, Boston,  1907. 

BALDWIN,  B.  T.  Physical  Growth  and  School  Progress,  United 
States  Government  Report,  (Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin, 
1914,  No.  10,  Whole  No.  581.) 

HALL,  G.  S.  Adokscence,  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York, 
1911. 

JOHNSON,  G.  E.  Education  by  Plays  and  Games,  Ginn  & 
Company,  Boston,  1907. 

McDouGAL,  WM.  Social  Psychology,  Luce  &  Company,  Bos- 
ton, 1918,  13th  edition. 

TROTTER,  W.  Instincts  of  the  Herd  in  Peace  and  War,  The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1919. 

Very  valuable  books  for  the  study  of  characteristics  of  children. 

7.  CRAMPTON,  C.  WARD.    "Physiological  vs.  Chronological  Age." 

Pedriatics,  Vol.  XX,  No.  6,  June,  1908. 

8.  DUTTON,  SAMUEL  T.,  AND  SNEDDEN,  DAVID.     The  Administra- 

tion of  Public  Education  in  the  United  States,    The  Mac- 
millan Company,  New  York,  1914. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

OBJECTIVES,  CONTENT,  AND  MATERIAL" 

ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  GYMNASIUM 

AND  PLAYGROUND 

Objectives. — The  work  on  the  playground  and  hi  the 
gymnasium  should  have  a  broader  appeal  and  aim  at  more 
comprehensive  results  than  the  calisthenic  drills  of  the 
classroom.  The  usual  calisthenics  are  an  artificial  means 
of  providing  activity;  they  have  no  relation  to  the  normal, 
natural  forms  of  play.  On  the  other  hand  the  program  on 
the  playground  should  provide  the  fullest  opportunity  for 
exp£e^iojL^t^lf_m^whol^wne  play,  consciously  directed 
by  teachers  who  wiiTgui3e,  checETsSinulate,  and  admonish 
as  the  case  warrants.  The  activities  of  the  gymnasium 
should  be  as  nearly  like  that  of  the  playground  as  pos- 
sible. The  type  of  activities  should  be  natural,  and  in 
this  one  aims  to  achieve_^u-mQtor  education  that  shall 
function  in  the  life  jgfjbhe  indlviteal;*  TEenT  should 
be  sought  therefore "an^adequateTrnotor  education,  an 
adequate  self-expression  of  personality,  from  which  there 
will  naturally  result  health  if  the  work  has  been  hygienic, 
and  development  of  character  and  a  desirable  shaping  of 
personality,  if  the  guidance  has  been  awake  to  moral  and 
social  values. 

The  objectives,  therefore,  are  motor  education  that  shall 
function  in  promoting  physical  vigor.,  and  an  awaken- 
ing and  expression  of  mental,  moral,  and  social  feel- 

*  Fauver,  Edwin.     American  Physical  Education  Review.     March,  1919,  p.  220. 

44 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  45 

ings  and  states  that  shall  lead  toward  fine  qualities  of 
citizenship. 

Content. — In  getting  away  from  the  more  formal  aims 
of  traditional  gymnastics,  we  are  seeking  to  establish  a 
practice  that  will  serve  to  make  boys  and  girls  better  able 
to  live  the  life  of  free  citizens  in  a  democracy.  Professor 
Rapeer  in  a  report  (1)  on  the  minimal  essentials  of  physi- 
cal education  offers  the  following  as  types  that  would 
seem  to  be  satisfactory: 

1.  Free  and  supervised  play,  including  dancing 

2.  Free  and  supervised  athletics 

3.  Boy  Scouts,  Camp  Fire  Girls,  and  other  similar  activities 

4.  Wholesome  motor  activity  in  connection  with  school  and  other 

work  activities  of  many  kinds 

5.  Handicrafts  and  other  similar  avocations 

6.  Formal  physical  training  or  gymnastics  in  the  narrow  sense 

7.  Orthopedic,  therapeutic,  or  medical  gymnastics 

8.  School  excursions,  tramps,  and  hikes 

9.  School  dramatics,  posturing,  etc. 

It  would  seem  necessary  to  provide  for  the  sixth  item 
because  at  times  it  is  impossible  to  carry  out  the  natural 
programs  due  to  lack  of  buildings,  space,  funds,  or  teach- 
ers. It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  frequently  the 
equipment  will  permit  a  more  rational  program  than  is 
given  by  some  teachers. 

The  above  suggested  content  has  been  elaborated  in  the 
report  (1)  and  is  worth  detailed  study.  It  presents  games 
for  the  first  eight  grades,  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to 
dancing,  character  of  the  formal  exercises,  and  other  inter- 
esting and  valuable  discussion.  Many  suggestions  are 
taken  from  Stecher  (2)  and  the  assignment  of  games  to 
grades  is  in  agreement  mainly  with  the  order  given  in  the 
Philadelphia  schools. 

Modifiers  of  content. — From  what  has  been  stated  in 
the  preceding  pages,  and  from  the  very  definite  tendency 
toward  play  and  athletics  as  shown  everywhere  today,  it 


46  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

may  be  noted  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  any  program 
of  formal  calisthenics  and  gymnastics.  It  must  be  appre- 
ciated, however,  that  all  that  may  be  desirable  in  a  rational 
physical  education  program  is  at  present  not  always  possi- 
ble due  to  handicaps  that  at  times  are  financial,  at  times 
physical,  and  at  times  human.  There  is  a  place,  a  justified 
place,  in  physical  education  for  drill  in  the  elements  and 
fundamentals  of  motor  movements  that  function  in  life; 
at  present,  however,  the  great  majority  of  school  systems 
are  doing  more  in  formal  gymnastics  than  is  justified  by 
any  necessity  of  the  situation  and  are  not  fully  awake 
to  the  reasonableness  and  practical  value  of  a  program 
based  upon  the  child's  interests  and  basic  and  instinctive 
desires. 

It  is  not  an  unreasonable  standard  to  hold  that  the 
elementary  school  should  secure  a  program  in  physical 
education  based  upon  plays,  games,  club  activities, 
dancing,  and  whenever  possible,  swimming. 

Content  of  curriculum  for  elementary  schools. — The 
physical  activities  of  the  kindergarten  should  be  carried 
over  in  the  first  grade  of  the  elementary  school.  The  Gary 
school  plan  for  physical  education  is  based  upon  a  work- 
study-play  program.  The  play  part  is  an  essential  leg  in 
the  educational  tripod  at  Gary.  An  excellent  program  in 
physical  education  is  given  in  the  published  curriculum 
(3)  of  the  Speyer  School.  The  diagram  in  figure  2  gives 
the  kind  and  distribution  of  material  desirable  in  the  first 
six  grades. 

Content  of  curriculum  for  high  schools. — 1.  The  best 
type  of  physical  education  is  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the 
private  schools.  The  Andover  plan  (4)  in  use  at  the 
Andover  School,  Andover,  N.  H.,  is  excellent. 

2.  The  Horace  Mann  School  for  Boys,  New  York  City, 
provides  a  unique  and  in  many  ways  an  ideal  scheme. 
Games  and  athletics  comprise  the  entire  program  of  motor 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND 


47 


1 1  i  1 1 


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48  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

education.  The  period  comes  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 
Study  periods  are  conducted  in  the  late  afternoon  after 
the  game  period. 

3.  The  Wardlaw  School,  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  has  an  excel- 
lent program  for  physical  education. 

4.  The  Horace  Mann  High  School  for  Girls,  New  York 
City,  offers  an  unusually  good  program  for  a  city  school 
with  limited  play  space.    The  students  in  the  senior  high 
school  may  elect  one  of  three  courses  in  their  required 
work  of  two  periods  a  week,  as  follows: 

a.  Natural  dancing — two  periods 

b.  Gymnastics,  folk  dancing,  and  swimming — two  periods 

c.  Athletics — two  afternoons 

A  large  majority  choose  the  athletics  which  consists  of: 

Fall— Tennis 

Field  hockey 

(1)  Beginners  squad 

(2)  Varsity  squad 

Two  interscholastic  games 
Winter— Basketball 

(1)  Interclass  teams  playing  eleven  games 

(2)  Varsity  team  playing  ten  interscholastic  games 
Spring — Swimming 

(1)    Swimming  meets 
Tennis 

(1)    Tennis  tournaments 
Track 

(1)    Track  meet 

In  large  city  high  schools  the  programs  are  limited  by 
the  difficulties  inherent  in  large  groups  without  adequate 
play  space. 

5.  An  illustration  of  minimum  essentials  in  the  high 
school  field  would  be — 

a.  Swimming  for  all. 

b.  Games  and  athletics  (competitive)  for  all. 
The  girls  should  not  play  boys'  games.     Dr.  Fauver 

suggests  the  following  for  both  boys  and  girls  (5) : 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  49 

For  Boys  For  Girls 

Baseball  Indoor  baseball 

Basketball  Basketball  (girls'  rules) 

Field  hockey  Field  hockey 

Ice  hockey  Handball 

Cricket  Swimming  and  diving 

La  Crosse  Fifty  yard  dash 

Soccer  Hurdle  races 

Football  Tennis 

Handball  Volley  ball 

Volley  ball  Center  ball 

Center  ball  Golf 

Boxing  Bowling 

Track  and  field  athletics  Dodge  ball 

Squash 

Tennis 

Bowling 

Swimming 

The  question  of  what  physical  activities  are  suited  to 
and  may  be  beneficially  used  by  the  girls  is  variously 
answered.  Many  factors  should  be  considered :  the  struc- 
ture of  woman's  body,  its  strength  and  endurance,  the 
nature  of  her  development,  and  the  type  of  activity  best 
suited  to  her  needs.  Some  leaders  in  physical  education 
advocate  a  free  participation  by  women  in  activities 
pursued  mainly  by  men;  others  markedly  limit  the  range 
of  sports  for  women.  The  following  list  from  Healthful 
Schools  (6)  is  suggestive: 

For  Mature  Girls  For  Immature  Girls 

Condemned —  Condemned — 
Broad  jump  Pole  vaulting 

High  jump  (in  competition)  Running  more  than  100  yards 

Pole  vaulting  Weight  throwing 

Doubtful- 
Doubtful—  Basketball 
High  jump                                        Field  hockey 

Running  more  than  100  yards  Safe — 

(in  competition)  Archery 

Weight  throwing  Ball  throwing 


50  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Safe —  Broad  and  high  jump 

Archery  (not  in  competition) 

Ball  throwing  Climbing 

Basketball  (women's  rules)  Dancing 

Climbing  Horseback  riding 

Coasting  (cross  saddle) 

Dancing  Low  hurdles 

Field  hockey  Paddling 

Golf  Rowing 

Horseback  riding  (cross  and  Running  (not  in  intense 

side  saddle)  competition) 

Indoor  baseball  Skating 
Low  hurdles  (not  in 

competition)  Swimming 

Paddling  Tennis 

Rowing  Walking 
Running  (not  in  competition)  Especially  beneficial  and  suitable. 

Skating  Climbing 

Skiing  Dancing 

Snow-shoeing  Jumping  (in  moderation) 

Swimming  Running  (in  moderation) 

Tennis  Skating 

Walking  Swimming 

Especially  beneficial  and  suitable  Walking — best  loved,  most 

Dancing  commonly  practiced,  and 

Paddling  with    greatest   primitive 

Rowing  appeal 

Running  Dancing — 

Swimming  (greatest    unanimity    of 

Walking  opinion  in  this  answer) 

The  criticism  to  be  made  of  the  above  list  of  games  and 
sport  activities  for  girls  is  the  tendency  to  rule  out  the 
games  and  conditions  which  are  most  valuable  in  develop- 
ing the  type  of  response  which  the  vigorous  fighting  games 
call  forth  in  boys.  "The  modern  girl  needs  a  greater 
opportunity  to  share  in  situations  that  come  in  games  and 
that  require  self-sacrifice,  courage,  fair  play,  and  per- 
sistence." * 

c.  Dancing  for  girls. 

d.  Dancing  for  boys. 

*  Williams,  Jesse  Feu-ing.     "Values  of  Camping  for  Girls."     Teachers  C<  <••••    •'     ord. 
XXI:  1.    January,  1920. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  51 

e.  Club  organizations  carrying  on  the  activities  of 
the  groups  into  picnics,  hikes,  camping  parties,  etc., 
and  continuing  as  an  organization  for  the  alumni  of 
the  school. 

f .  Exercises  in  the  gymnasium  for  perfecting  skill 
in  dancing,  games,  and  swimming. 

g.  Tumbling,  boxing,  wrestling,  and  apparatus 
(selected)  for  boys. 

h.    Marching  using  as  a  basis  U.  S.  Military  drill 
regulations. 

i.    Corrective  gymnastics  for  special  cases  requiring 
special  exercises. 

Interschool  athletics  for  girls. — The  traditional  attitude 
toward  girls7  participation  in  the  activities  of  the  gym- 
nasium, pool,  and  athletic  field  has  been  one  of  opposition. 
The  Victorian  type  of  girl  with  a  welLdeveloped  headache 
and  a  poorly  developed  body  has  until  recently  been  the 
standard  for  women.  A  modern  liberalism  has  brought 
to  women  greater  freedom  in  politics,  hi  business,  in  in- 
dustry, and  in  education,  so  that  in  schools  of  today  the 
girl  shares  with  her  brother  the  program  in  the  field,  the 
court,  and  the  pool. 

It  has  been  variously  stated  and  with  various  reasons 
that  women  should  not  engage  in  athletic  sports.  Proba- 
bly all  the  objections  that  have  been  presented  at  different 
times  apply  with  full  force  when  we  mean  athletic  sports 
with  men's  standards.  It  is  no  mistake  to  permit  the  girl 
to  play  basketball,  baseball.  hockey ?  soccer,  to  swimrbul 
to  allowher  to  attempt  to  measure  up  to  man's  perform- 
ance in  these  activities  is  the  great  error^  There  is  need 
for  development  of  suitable  standards  for  women's  ath- 
letics; but  that  does  not  mean  that  girls  and  women 
should  not  play  games  very  much  as  boys  do. 

There  are  those  who  sanction  girls'  engaging  in  team 
games  but  who  insist  that  they  should  not  engage  in  inter- 


52  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

scholastic  or  intercollegiate  sport.    The  reasons  given  for 
this  view  are  usually  one  or  all  of  the  following: 

1.  Girls  are  not  good  losers. 

2.  Girls  do  not  behave  well  on  street  cars  or  rail- 
road trains. 

3.  Girls  are  apt  to  play  when  not  fit. 

4.  Girls  are  too  sensitive  and  too  delicately  con- 
stituted nervously  to  stand  the  strain  of  mterscho- 
lastic  competition. 

5.  Girls  would  give  too  much  attention  to  the 
games  and  neglect  school  work. 

These  arguments  are  so  often  used  and  the  case  so  often 
made  out  against  participation  that  it  is  worth  while  to 
inquire  into  the  validity  of  the  several  contentions.  The 
five  points  will  be  discussed  in  order. 

1.  If  girls  are  not  good  losers,  and  it  is  granted  that 
they  show  less  evidence  of  sportsmanlike  qualities  than 
boys,  how,  it  may  be  asked,  are  we  to  overcome  this 
deficiency?    Are  we  to  assume  that  in  original  nature  the 
girl  lacks  " fairness,  loyalty,  and  honor'7?    There  is  no 
evidence  for  this  at  all.    It  is  more  probable  that  she  is  a 
poor  loser  because  her  training  and  education  have  been 
such  that  "good  losing  qualities"  were  not  required.    It 
may  be  remarked  that  one  can  only  acquire  the  ability  to 
lose  gracefully  and  courteously  by  playing.    There  is  no 
evidence  to  the  contrary.    It  may  be  further  noted  that 
because  woman  is  coming  more  and  more  into  a  larger 
share  of  the  world's  work  and  must  work  with  men  in  all 
sorts  of  political,  social,  economic,  and  educational  prob- 
lems, it  is  of  paramount  importance  that  she  develop 
ability  to  lose  and  ability  to  win  without  having  the  result 
incapacitate  her  for  further  endeavor. 

2.  If  it  is  granted  that  girls  behave  in  an  unseemly 
manner  on  street  cars  and  railroad  trains,  is  it  not  fair  to 
inquire  how  they  may  be  taught  to  behave  with  regard 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  53 

to  accepted  customs?  Surely,  not  by  keeping  them  off 
street  cars  and  railroad  trains!  Manners  in  public  cannot 
be  taught  in  the  classroom.  They  can  be  taught  effectively 
and  well  in  street  cars  and  railroad  trains.  Proper  super- 
vision and  direction,  only,  are  needed. 

3.  Girls  are  physiologically  so  constituted  that  com- 
petitive sport  would  be  harmful  at  the  menstrual  period. 
The  physical  education  program  must  always  conserve 
and  never  injure  health.     It  is  important  to  point  out, 
however,  that  girls  can  be  taught  and  should  be  taught 
to  care  for  their  health  under  even  the  most  urgent  situa- 
tions.   One  teacher  has  secured  entire  support  from  her 
girls  by  helping  them  to  see  that  it  was  unfair  to  the  team 
to  play  when  they  were  not  physically  fit.    The  possi- 
bilities for  education  in  this  regard  are  so  rich  that  the 
chances  for  injury  may  be  disregarded.    In  any  case,  the 
problem  can  be  controlled  by  proper  supervision.    It  may 
be  noted  that  a  larger  squad  is  necessary  for  a  girls'  team; 
this  is  highly  desirable  for  many  reasons. 

4.  The  answer  to  the  fourth  argument  is  that  the  girl 
has  been  deprived  of  opportunities  to  develop  self-control 
by  the  mistaken  views  that  she  must  be  shielded,  pro- 
tected, and  carefully  guarded.     It  is  more  important  to 
train  a  girl  in  self-reliance,  to  develop  ability  to  meet 
difficult  situations  without  expecting  someone  to  step  in 
and  save  the  day.    The  sensitive  girl  is  the  girl  who  has 
never  met  opponents  in  games  and  sports.    If  sensitive- 
ness as  a  quality  in  women  is  desired,  the  best  procedure 
would  be  to  eliminate  her  from  competitive  school  sports. 
If  a  self -controlled,  self-reliant  woman  is  to  be  sought,  then 
interscholastic  and  intercollegiate  sport  may  be  made  of 
great  assistance  in  this  respect. 

5.  Girls  would  give  relatively  more  attention  to  games 
and  less  attention  to  school  work  and  it  is  believed  that 
this  redistribution  would  be  salutary.    Whether  she  would 


54  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

give  "too  much"  attention  to  games  is  a  moot  point, 
but  it  should  be  noted  that  girls  are  apt  to  be  conscientious 
and  would  make  a  fairer  distribution  than  boys  do. 

Contents  of  work  for  college  students. 

I.  A  woman's  college. — Some  colleges  are  not  con- 
tinuing their  formal,  lifeless,  and  uninteresting  wand, 
dumb-bell,  and  Indian  club  exercises.  The  type  of  work 
at  a  western  woman's  college  is  suggestive: 

A.  Students  may  elect  the  type  of  work  desired. 

B.  All  the  work  is  coordinated  with  the  Greek  games,  a  contest 

between  freshmen  and  sophomores.  These  games  are  held 
in  the  spring  term  and  include  contests  in  dancing,  athletics, 
lyrics,  costuming,  and  chorus.  The  educational  possibilities  of 
physical  education  are  indicated  in  this  plan. 

C.  Courses : 

FRESHMEN 

1.  Dancing 

a.  Beginners — 

(a)    Elementary  instruction  in  folk  dancing — Greek 
ideals  and  natural  dancing. 

b.  Advanced  dancing — This  class  is  for  those  whose  prepara- 

tory work  has  included  dancing — entered  on  examination 
of  fundamental  steps,  technique,  rhythm,  expression. 
It  meets  with  the  sophomore  beginning  class. 

2.  Athletics. — One  period  of  athletics  and  one  period  of  swimming, 

or  two  periods  of  athletics. 
a.    Elementary 
6.    Advanced 

(1)  Marching  for  organization,  form,  control,  response 

to  command. 

(2)  Greek  walk  for  use  in  Greek  games. 

(3)  Ten    minutes    of    corrective    exercises — posture, 

balance,    and    coordination   related    to    Greek 
activities. 

3.  Games — for  class  and  college 

Hockey,  basketball,  baseball 
Preparatory  games  in  preparation 

4.  Athletics  for  Greek  games 

Running — torch  race 
Hurdling — for  form 
Discus — form  and  placement 
Hoop  rolling — speed 
Relay — speed 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  55 

5.  Athletics  for  track  meet 

Running — relay* 
dash 

Hurdling — speed 
High  jump 
Out  door  discus 
Basketball  throw 
Baseball  throw 

6.  Swimming. — Jump  in  and  swim  the  length  of  the  pool.    In- 

complete in  gymnasium  until  this  is  accomplished. 

7.  Optional  sports  conducted  by  girls  under  direction  of  coach  or 

director. 

Hockey — varsity,  class  teams 

Basketball — varsity,  class  teams 

Baseball 

Track  meet — interclass 

Swimming  meet — interclass 

Tennis  tournament — interclass 

Two  periods  of  organized  game  activities  can  be  substituted  for  one 
of  gymnastics.  All  girls  in  college  must  be  on  the  floor  for  one  gym- 
nastic period  a  week.  Substitution  allowed  also  for  two  periods  of 
corrective  work.  All  cuts  must  be  made  up. 

SOPHOMORE 

1.  Dancing 

a.    Elementary — 

Folk — interpretive — Greek — and  English  country  dances 
Examined  and  promoted  at  hah7  term 

6.     Advanced — 

Advanced    folk    dancing — interpretive — specialization 
for  Greek  games — Morris  sword  dances 

2.  Athletics 

Advanced — marching  tactics 
Corrective  exercises 
Sword  and  Morris  dances 
Greek  games  specialization 
Basketball  and  baseball 

Same  as  freshman  only  perfection  of  technique 

3.  Swimming  examination 

Twice  the  length  of  the  pool.    Physical  education  is  incomplete 
until  this  is  accomplished. 


56  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

4.    Optional  courses 

a.    Advanced  class  in  dancing — This  is  for  the  juniors  and 

seniors  who  expect  to  enter  regular  Physical  Education 

Department. 
6.    Class  in  Morris  and  country  dancing  for  pageant  to  be 

given  in  May. 
e.     Classes  in  Greek  dancing 

d.  Practice  for  Greek  dancing 

e.  Regular  practice  hours  for  hockey,  basketball,  and  baseball. 

II.  A  man's  college. — The  effort  in  colleges  and  uni- 
versities to  meet  the  needs  of  the  students  and  to  avoid 
assuming  that  a  set  inelastic  program  will  serve  for  all,  is 
indeed  commendable.  Dr.  Meylan  at  Columbia  has 
worked  out  a  system  under  which  the  entering  first  year 
students  during  the  week  of  examination  are  classified  in 
three  groups,  A,  B,  and  C.  Group  A  students  are  per- 
mitted to  elect  any  of  the  athletic  squads.  Group  B 
students  register  for  one  of  the  regular  sections  which  pro- 
vide in  the  fall  and  spring  athletics,  games,  and  swimming 
out  of  doors,  and  in  the  winter  gymnastics,  boxing,  and 
wrestling  in  the  gymnasium.  Group  C  students  register 
for  a  special  section  in  which  corrective,  developmental, 
and  body  building  work  is  used  to  bring  these  students  up 
to  a  higher  grade. 

The  examinations  and  classification  are  based  upon  the 
usual  anthropometric  and  medical  examination  plus 
efficiency  tests  which  measure  the  man's  development, 
agility,  endurance,  and  proficiency  in  certain  selected 
movements. 

The  sophomore  work  has  a  two-fold  purpose.  "  First, 
to  offer  further  training  to  students  who  have  not  yet 
reached  the  standard  of  development,  agility,  and  pro- 
ficiency of  Group  A:  second,  to  have  every  student  learn 
at  least  two  forms  of  outdoor  exercise,  and  two  forms  of 
indoor  exercise  well  enough  to  get  above  the  novice  class." 

The  type  of  work  conducted  at  Columbia  represents  an 
advanced  and  modern  program  in  the  university  field. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  67 

•v 

An  excellent  program  is  in  operation  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Types  of  material. — The  range  of  material  in  physical 
education  is  so  extensive  and  the  amount  of  desirable  work 
available  so  great  that  all  cannot  be  presented  here.  It  is 
intended,  however,  to  indicate  the  organization  of  certain 
materials  that  are  used  such  as  tactics,  natural  gymnastics, 
club  work  and  leadership  training,  formal  drills,  series  on 
apparatus,  athletic  sports,  games,  and  dances. 

1.  Tactics.    Marching  in  school  is  frequently  spoken 
of  as  tactics.     There  has  developed  a  definite  type  of 
school  tactics  aimed  at  meeting  school  conditions.     In 
some  places  there  has  grown  up  a  special  terminology. 
This  situation  is  to  be  deplored  and  corrected.     Marching 
is  valuable  for  school  organization  in  connection  with  fire 
drills,  assembly,  and  dismissal;  it  is  also  valuable  as  gym- 
nastic material.      Its  direct  connection  with  plans  for 
military  service  should  be  appreciated.     While  it  is  recog- 
nized that  the  evolutions  of  the  military  parade  ground 
may  not  be  suitable  for  the  school  room  or  gymnasium  it 
is  contended  that  the  terminology  should  follow  the  United 
States  Infantry  drill  regulations  as  far  as  possible.     The 
use  of  any  other  terminology,  whether  German  or  Swedish, 
is  indefensible^in  the  United  States  of  America. 

2.  Natural  gymnastics  (7).      Exercises  simulating  oc- 
cupational or  play  forms,  at  times,  are  called  mimetic. 
The  use  of  the  term,   natural  gymnastics,  to__include 
practice  hi  t.hft  t-ftfihniqiift  of  all  motor  movements  that 
relate  to  occupational,  play,  and  dance  forms  is  gaining 
recognition.     Such  gymnastics  are  valuable  in  teaching 
the  correct  form  of  athletic  sports;  they  may  also  be  used, 
and  more  logically,  as  drill  and  practice  in  parts  of  an 
activity  which  is  already  known  but  in  which  the  desired 
skill  is  not  as  yet  developed.    Drill  that  is  unrelated  to 
the  real  thing  is  often  very  much  of  a  bore;   its  logical 


58  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

place  is  in  relation  to  the  perfection  of  some  phase  of  ath- 
letic activity.  Some  natural  gymnastics,  not  athletic  in 
character,  may  be  used  in  the  elementary  grades  as  play 
and  dramatic  forms.  Natural  gymnastics  (8)  include  the 
practice  of  the  basic  elements  and  fundamentatsjofracial 
activities.  They  involve  in  the  program  of  th e  mOTe7orm"al 
activities  the  selection  of  exercises  to  be  used  as  drill  for 
the  purpose  of  achieving  increased  skill  and  proficiency  in 
natural  forms  that  are  known  and  practiced.  This  would 
mean  that  a  group  playing  soccer  on  the  football  field 
would  work  in  the  gymnastic  hour  on  exercises  to  improve 
the  ability  to  play  soccer;  dry  land  swimming  exercises 
for  those  in  the  pool  would  be  used;  and  technique  related 
to  dances  in  use  and  known  would  be  practiced.  The  en- 
tire range  of  games,  dancing,  sports,  and  athletics  of  all 
kinds  would  serve  as  material  for  selection  and  adaptation 
of  exercises.  Thus  natural  gymnastics  achieves  a  relation 
to  life  and  to  the  needs  of  school  programs.  At  one  stroke 
it  avoids  all  the  evils  inherent  in  exercises  of  the  artificial, 
unnatural,  and  unrelated  type  so  often  seen. 

3.  Club  work  and  leadership  training.  The  definite 
organization  of  boys  and  girls  into  groups,  or  clubs,  or 
squads,  for  training  in  fine  qualities  of  citizenship  involving 
a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  of  a  good  leader,  ability 
and  opportunity  to  choose  the  leader,  and  a  responsibility 
for  following  the  choice  made,  is  very  new  in  this  field. 
The  technique  of  organization  as  worked  out  by^Kosen- 
thal*  at  Speyer  School  (Junior  High)  has  given  the  best 
practical  results  of  any  experiments  made  so  far  along  this 
line. 

The  work  is  grouped  around  the  activities  of  the  gym- 
nastic period  and  recreation  hour,  but  carries  over  into 
the  entire  life  of  the  school.  The  boys  name  the  qualities 

*  Fretwell,  E.  K.      "Education  for  Leadership."     Teachers  College  Record.     September, 
1919,  pp.  324-352. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  59 

to  look  for  in  leaders.  In  this  as  in  all  the  elements  of  the 
work,  the  boy's  idea  is  taken  as  the  best  guide  of  boy  con- 
duct. The  fjin^tinn  of  tbft  t-^q^herijfjjh^sical  education  is^ 
to  suggest  a™d  IP^  f.hp.  hnya  t.n  fionsideroesirable  qualities! 

The  club  idea  is  used  because  of  the  natural  character- 
istics of  the  boy  in  this  period.  The  activities  and  achieve- 
ments are  scored  and  the  motive  is  the  winning  of  the 
"Speyer  '$'".  This  "S"  stands  for  more  than  athletic 
ability.  It  represents  physical,  social,  mental,  and  moral 
efficiency.  The  opportunity  of  making  the  physical  edu- 
cation program  serve  for  efficiency  in  this  larger  view 
should  be  seized. 

4.  Formal  drills.  Formal  physical  training  may  be 
considered  as  a  substitute  for  other  and  more  desirable 
activity  only  when  the  previous  types  suggested  for  any 
sufficient  reason  cannot  be  used.  These  reasons  may  be 
abnormally  large  classes,  lack  of  gymnasium  or  play  space, 
very  short  periods,  inclement  weather,  or  inadequate 
teaching  force.  It  is  important  to  state  that  physical 

UmitatJOnS  should  not  foft  tfrg  r^a/ly  ~' 


oTa  motivated  and  educative  proj^ram.  Natural  gym- 
nastics can  Jjejised  in  a  limited  spaceT 
~If  f  ormal"cahsthenic  drills  are  used,  they  should  be  done 
well  and  should  aim  at  definite  ends.  They  are  least 
objectionable  when  well  taught  because  then  some  of  the 
pupils  will  enjoy  the  activity.  In  arranging  drills  of  this 
character  it  would  seem  important  to  emphasize  three 
points: 

a.  Aim  to  obtain  good  posture  throughout  the 
lesson.    The  content  must  provide  uplift  of  the  body 
and  the  emphasis  should  be  up  and  not  down.    At- 
tempt to  get  a  sensation  of  good  posture. 

b.  Aim  to  secure  alertness  in  response  to  com- 
mands and  body  control  in  all  movements.    Bring 
alertness  into  the  voice  and  manner  of  commanding. 


60  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

c.    Aim  to  produce  the  general  effects  of  exercise. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  movements  must  involve  the 
large  muscles  of  the  legs  and  trunk — the  "  fundamen- 
tal muscles."    They  must  be  performed  vigorously 
enough  to  secure  definite  increase  in  heart  rate,  blood 
pressure,  and  respiration.    Swinging  Indian  clubs  is 
valueless  in   this  respect.     There  is   considerable 
question  whether  it  has  any  intrinsic  value  at  all. 
5.    Exercises  on  apparatus.    The  use  of  apparatus  as 
an  object  of  difficulty  to  be  overcome  gives  a  certain  ac- 
ceptance to  its  employment  in  rational  physical  education. 
Its  use  to  the  extent  advocated  by  German  gymnasts  is 
condemned,  if  only  because  of  the  exclusion  ('of  other  and 
more  desirable  activity.   The  dangers  in  prolonged  use  and 
overdevelopment  of  arms  and  shoulder  girdle  are  real; 
the  German  gymnast,  as  a  type,  represents  an  inefficient 
motor  mechanism. 

The  selection  of  apparatus  for  boys  may  be  justified 
when  the  same  use  for  girls  would  hp,  (»ond  farmed.  It 
would  seem  from  knowledge  of  differences  in  anatomic 
structure  of  the  sexes  that  girls  should  not  practice  exer- 
cises involving  a  support  by  the  arms  alone,  that  the  more 
vigorous  forms  should  be  omitted,  and  that  the  emphasis 
should  be  on  vaults,  jumps,  and  climbing  with  arms  and 
legs  both. 

Hanging  and  swinging  exercises  of  thejujuaLkinjLaie 
undesirable  for  girJs  because  in  comparison  with  bo  vs. 

a.  The  girl's  weight  is  lower. 

b.  The  girl's  strength  is  less. 

c.  The  danger  of  a  fall  is  greater. 

d.  The  results  of  a  fall  are  liable  to  be  more  serious. 
Now  since  exercises  on  apparatus  have  in  the  main  been 

developed  by  men  and  taught  by  men  and  since  girls 
unwholesomely  desire  to  do  all  the  exercises  that  boys  do, 
it  is  important  to  state  that, 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND 


6i 


(1)  Girls'   exercises  on   apparatus  need  careful 
modification  with  reference  to  the  girl's  body  struc- 
ture, specialized  function,  and  probable  occupation  in 
life,  and  that, 

(2)  Women  instructors  for  girls  will  probably  be 
more  appreciative  of  the  health  values  involved  than 


men. 


GIRLS'  ATHLETICS 

1 

1 

il 

ASSIGNED  VALUES  FOR  DIFFERENT  RANKS 

ij 

2*5 

value  of 
event 

valuatioi 
on  scale 

10      98765         4         3         2           1 

|-s 

1 

11 

EVENT 

1    2 

34 

56 

7  8 

9  10 

11  12 

1314 

1516 

1718 

19  20  21 

J5 

i6 

1  Swimming  

820 

22 

1  2 

35 

340 

9.7 

2  Tennis  

5    6 

94 

1  4 

2 

1 

32 

287 

8.9 

3  Volley  ball.  .  . 

1 

6  2 

4  2 

3  9 

2    1 

1    2 

33 

247 

7.4 

4  Handball  

2    2 

1  1 

36 

52 

4    2 

5 

1 

34 

244 

5  Indoor  baseball.  . 

1 

20 

47 

3 

4    3 

2 

32 

243 

7\5 

6  Basketball  (girls') 

1 

26 

33 

53 

1    2 

3 

3 

32 

231 

7.2 

7  Golf  

45 

61 

I  2 

3    3 

3    3 

1 

32 

227 

7.0 

8  Bowling  

1 

2 

4  4 

5 

5    4 

1    3 

2    1 

2 

34 

219 

6  4 

9  Field  hockey  

2 

I 

33 

26 

3    3 

1    1 

1    4 

30 

199 

6.6 

10  Center  ball.  .  . 

1  1 

1  2 

17 

5    2 

2    4 

2 

2 

30 

184 

6.1 

11  50  yard  dash.... 

1    2 

1  1 

1 

2 

3    2 

8    2 

3    1 

3 

30 

175 

5.8 

12  Hiking 

12    2 

1 

l 

16 

156 

9  7 

13  Hurdle  races  

1 

1 

3    4 

1  10 

2    3 

1    3 

1 

30 

146 

4^8 

14  Boating    and    ca- 

V 

noeing 

1 

2  2 

1  i 

7 

62 

15  Skating  (ice)  

I 

3 

1 

7 

55 

16  Dancing  

3    1 

4 

40 

17  Riding 

2 

l 

3 

23 

18  Coasting  

l 

1 

1 

3 

17 

19  Quoits 

2 

2 

There  are  too  few  ju< 
to  use  the  data  below  th 

gments 

p  linfi  to 

2 

2 

14 
12 

20  Bat  ball  

21  Calisthenics 

1 

1 

determinegroupopinion.  Inone 
sense,  however,  the  opinion  of 

1 
1 

10 
9 

22  End  ball  

23  Sailing         .    . 

1 

1 

the  group  is  given:  only  a  few 
considered  t.hpsfi  events  worth 

1 
1 

8 
6 

24  Jumping  

25  Archery  

listing. 

1 

1 

3 

26  Javelin  

1 

1 

2 

6.  Athletic  sports.  Athletic  sports  and  games  furnish 
very  desirable  material  because  of  the  instinctive  appeal 
in  such  plays  and  the  opportunities  they  present  for  the 
development  of  moral  and  social  values  (9).  Classifica- 
tions of  boys'  and  girls'  events,  as  proposed  by  authori- 
ties in  physical  education,  are  given  on  pages  61  and  62. 


62 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


A  group  of  thirty-six  advanced  students  in  the  study  of 
problems  of  administration  of  physical  education  arranged 
boys'  and  girls'  activities  in  order  of  value.  The  selection 
was  for  junior  and  senior  high  school  groups.  The  values 
for  consideration  were  the  worth  of  the  event  for  the 


5 

Jo 

8 

1 

BOYS'  ATHLETICS 

V 

« 

11 

ASSIGNED  VALUES  FOR  DIFFERENT  RANKS 

I| 

l! 

is 

10       98765         4         3          2          1 

|.s 

i 

il 

1 

H 

-  v 

EVENT 

1    2 

3  4 

M 

78 

9  10 

11  12 

1314 

15  16 

17  18 

19  20  21 

& 

1  Swimming 

7  11 

9    4 

l  i 

1 

34 

320 

9.4 

2  Baseball  

6    6 

4    5 

2.  4 

1  1 

3    1 

1 

34 

292 

8.5 

3  Tennis  

2    3 

2  10 

4  4 

2  1 

1    2 

4    1 

36 

286 

8.2 

4  Handball 

3    2 

6    3 

2 

6  4 

1    i 

1    3 

1 

33 

253 

7.6 

5  Boxing     

1    2 

5    1 

>  4 

1  4 

3    1 

1 

1    1 

1 

1 

1 

33 

234 

7.0 

6  Bowling  
7  Basketball 

1 
1 

2    2 
2    4 

\  -, 
L  1 

•>  2 

2  4 

2    4 
5    4 

3    2 
5 

1    1 
4    1 

1 

1 

35 
34 

233 
201 

6.6 
5.9 

8  Hiking 

13    4 

1 

18 

177 

9  8 

9  Track  and  field.. 

2    3 

43 

2    2 

2    5 

1 

2    1 

1 

3 

31 

176 

5.6 

10  Soccer 

22 

2  2 

4    1 

3 

5    2 

2    3 

1    l 

1 

31 

153 

4  9 

11  Center  ball  

1 

2 

2 

5    1 

1    3 

1    4 

4    4 

4    1 

33 

149 

4.5 

12  Football           .    . 

1     1 

2 

1 

2    2 

1    3 

1    4 

2    2 

2    1 

1 

25 

124 

4  9 

13  Ice  hockey  

3  1 

1  2 

2    2 

2 

2    3 

3    2 

1 

24 

123 

5.1 

14  Field  hockey.  .  .  . 

1 

1 

J 

3    4 

5    6 

3    1 

1 

26 

114 

4.3 

15  Squash  

1  1 

2 

1    1 

4    3 

2    2 

2 

4    2 

1 

26 

112 

4.3 

16  Cricket  

1 

2    1 

1    2 

1    4 

6    3 

4    2 

1 

23 

100 

3  5 

17  LaCrosse  

1 

1    2 

2 

3 

3    3 

5    3 

3    1     1 

28 

86 

3.0 

18  Golf  

1 

2 

22 

1 

1 

1 

r 

12 

79 

6.5 

19  Quoits  

1 

2 

2 

5 

38 

20  Skating 

2 

1 

1 

1 

5 

25 

21  Canoeing  

1 

1  1 

3 

24 

22  Coasting 

1 

1 

3 

17 

23  Calisthenics  
24  Riding  

1 

1 

There  are  too  few  judgments  to  use  the  data 
below  the  line  to  determine  group  opinion. 
1   Tn  nnfi  Rfinsp.  how<»vftr.  tho  rmininn  nf 

10 
{ 

26  Sailing  
27  Lawn  bowls  .... 

1 

the 
1 

group  is  given:  only  a  few  con- 
sidered these  events  worth  list- 

6 

28  Fencing  

1 

ing. 

; 

29  Polo 

1 

i 

30  Archery  

1 

2 

individual  in  school  hi  terms  of  physiologic,  mental,  and 
social  needs  and  the  practicability  of  the  event  as  an  item 
in  a  physical  education  program.  The  group  also  rated 
dancing  and  calisthenic  exercises  in  order  to  compare 
these  activities  on  the  same  bases. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  63 

The  charts  on  pages  61,  62  indicate  the  results.  It  will 
be  noted  that  values  have  been  assigned  to  the  different 
ranks.  Thus,  first  and  second  choices  are  worth  ten; 
third  and  fourth  are  worth  nine;  fifth  and  sixth  are  worth 
eight;  etc.  The  number  selecting  each  event  is  given  and 
the  total  value  according  to  the  assignment.  It  will  be 
noted  also  that  the  percentage  valuation  in  each  event  is 
given.  This  is  not  carried  out  below  thirteen  for  the 
girls  and  below  eighteen  for  the  boys.  When  the  replies 
are  fewer  than  twelve  the  number  is  so  small  that  the 
valuation  is  worth  very  little  as  an  index  of  group  opinion. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  entire  list  of  events  was 
not  named  by  any  one  person.  The  returns  in  some  cases 
gave  only  eight  or  ten  as  desirable  selections.  All  events 
named  by  the  group  are  listed,  however. 

If  these  events  are  rearranged  in  order  of  value  according 
to  the  group  judgment,  the  following  results  appear: 

GROUP  JUDGMENT  OF  ATHLETIC  EVENTS 
ON  A  SCALE  OF  TEN 

Girls  Boys 

1.  Hiking 9.75      ,  ,  1.  Hiking 9.8 

2.  Swimming 9.71  2.  Swimming 9.4 

3.  Tennis 8.9     j  ^  3.  Baseball,  r^ 8.5 

4.  Indoor  baseball 7.5  4.  Tennis 8.2 

5.  Volleyball 7.4  5.  Handball  .< 7.6 

6.  Basketball  (girls'  rules) ...  7.2  6.  Boxing 7.0 

7.  Handball 7.1  7.  Bowling 6.6 

8.  Golf 7.0      j  s%.  Golf,  .t 6.5 

9.  Field  hockey 6.6  9.  Basketbail.  .T 5.9 

10.  Bowling 6.4  10.  Track  and  field 5.6 

11.  Center  ball 6.1  11.  Ice  hockey 5.1 

12.  Fifty-yard  dash 5.8  12.  Football. : 4.95 

13.  Hurdle  races 4.8  13.  Soccer.  .- 4.93 

14.  Center  ball 4.5 

15.  Field  hockey 4.38 

16.  Squash 4.3 

17.  Cricket 3.5 

18.  LaCrosse ,..  3.0 


64  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Concerning  the  above  rating  it  will  be  noted  that  hiking 
ranks  first  although  only  sixteen  named  it  for  girls  and 
eighteen  for  boys.  However,  if  sixteen  be  a  fair  number, 
as  representative  of  opinion  in  the  group,  this  rating  may 
be  permitted.  If  it  is  considered  that  a  maj  ority  should  be 
selected  as  determining  group  judgment,  then  hiking  would 
be  ruled  out  and  swimming  would  be  first.  The  other 
events  would  remain  the  same.  This  would  seem  unfor- 
tunate since  thirteen  placed  hiking  first  for  boys  and  twelve 
for  the  girls. 

7.  Games  (10).  The  following  classification  of  games 
is  based  on  a  wide  use  of  these  games  with  children  on  the 
playground.  It  is  believed  that  the  age  period  is  correct. 

GAMES  FOR  CHILDREN  BETWEEN  THE  AGES 

SEVEN  AND  NINE  YEARS 

B — Bancroft;  A — Angell;  J — Johnson;  B  &  P — Bancroft  and 
Pulvermacher. 

1.  Cat  and  Mouse.    B. 

2.  Garden  Scamp  (also  called  "Fox  and  Gardener,"  "Follow 

Chase,"  and  "Fox  and  Farmer").    B. 

3.  Hide  and  Seek  Games  are  as  follows : 

"Hide  and  Seek."    B.  " Smuggling  the  Geg."    B. 

"I  Spy."    B.  "Ten  Steps."    B. 

"Ring-a-lee-vio."    B.  "Yards  Off."    B. 

"Run,  Sheep,  Run!"    B.  "Sardines."    B. 

4.  Puss  in  the  Corner.    B. 

5.  Puss  in  the  Circle.    B. 

6.  Witch  in  the  Jar.    J. 

7.  Tommy  Tiddler's  Ground  (also  called  "Dixie's  Land"  and 

"King's  Land").    B. 

8.  Come  with  Me  (similar  to  "How-do-you-do").    J. 

9.  Drop  the  Handkerchief.    B. 

10.  Have  you  seen  my  Sheep?    B. 

11.  Gypsy.    B. 

12.  House-hiring  (similar  to  "Puss  in  the  Circle").     J. 

13.  The  Boiler  Burst  (same  as  "Save  Yourself  if  You  Can").    J. 

14.  Hawk  and  Chickens.    J. 

15.  Shepherdess  and  Wolf  (also  caUed  "The  Chickens  and  Fox" 

and  "Fox  and  Geese").    B. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  65 

16.  The  following  are  some  common  forms  of  tag  for  this  period: 

Shadow  Tag.    B.  Stone  Tag.    B. 

Squat  Tag.    B.  Whip  Tag  (also  called  "  The  Twisted 

Wood  Tag.    B.  Kerchief/'  or  "The  Beetle  Goes 

Round").    A. 

17.  Stealing  Sticks.    B. 

18.  Lame  Goose  (similar  to  "Tommy  Tiddler's  Ground").    J. 

19.  Hill  Dill  (also  called  " Peel  Away,"  or  "Pom,  Pom,  Pull  Away," 

or"  Chinese  Wall").    B. 

20.  Dare  Base.    J. 

21.  Bound  Hands  (similar  to  "Hill  Dill").    J. 

22.  Fast  Runners  (also  called  "Last  Couple  Out,"  ?' Widower," 

" Last  Pair  Pass,"  and  "Widow").    B. 

23.  FoUow  the  Leader.    B. 

24.  Five  Geese  in  a  Flock.    J. 

25.  Black  Man  (similar  to  "Bound  Hands").    J. 

26.  Black  Tom  (similar  to  "Ham,  Ham,  Chicken,  Bacon!").    B. 

27.  Going  to  Jerusalem.    B. 

28.  Huntsman.    J. 
2*9.  Hoop  Race.    J. 

30.  Encounters.    J. 

31.  Turnpikes.    J. 

32.  Catch  Ball  (also  called  "Ring  Call  Ball,"  "Number  Ball,"  and 

"Snake  in  the  Grass").    B. 

33.  Circle  Ball.    B. 

34.  Days  of  the  Week.    J.     (Page  108— not  indexed.) 

35.  One  Old  Cat.    J.     (Page  108— not  indexed.) 

36.  Two  Old  Cats.    J.     (Page  108— not  indexed.) 

37.  Round  Ball.    B. 

38.  Fungo.    J.     (Not  indexed.) 

39.  Faba  Gaba,  or  Bean  Bag  Game.    B. 

40.  Ring  Toss.    J. 

41.  Tenpins.    J. 

42.  Moon  and  Morning  Stars.    B. 

43.  Midnight  (also  caUed"  Twelve  O'Clock").    B. 

44.  Center  Catch  Ball.    B. 

45.  Bean  Bag  Circle  Toss.    B. 

46.  Bean  Bag  Ring  Throw.    B. 

47.  Center  Base.    B. 

48.  Hopping  Relay  Race.    B. 

49.  Single  Relay  Race.    B. 

50.  Water  Sprite.    B. 

51.  Bean  Bag  Box.    B. 

52.  Ball  Chase.    B. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 

69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 


Chinese  Chickens.    B. 

Dodge  Ball  (informal).    B. 

Lame  Fox  and  Chickens  (also  called  "Lame  Goose")-    B. 

Line  Zigzag  I.  B. 

Prisoner's  Base  I.  B. 

Shuttle  Relay  (also  called  "Double  Relay"  or  "Flag  Race").   B. 

Who  Goes  Round  My  Stone  Wall!    B. 

Jump  Rope.    B. 

Cushion  Dance  (similar  to  "Poison").    J. 

Sail  the  Ship.    J. 

Charlie  Over  the  Water.    B. 

Hop  Scotch. 

Jackstones. 

Mumble  the  Peg  or  Knife. 

Marbles. 

Feather  Game  (also  called  "Feder  Basen."    Use  fan  in  this 

game  instead  of  blowing  with  the  breath).    J. 
Bird  Catcher.    B. 
Queen  Dido  is  Dead.    J. 
Hunt  the  Slipper  (also  called  "Cobbler").    B. 
Hunt  the  Ring.    B. 
Paddy  from  Home.    J. 
Blind  Man's  Buff.    B. 
French  Blind  Man's  Buff.    B. 
Ruth  and  Jacob.    J.    Jacob  and  Rachel.    B. 


B. 


B. 


Birds  Fly.    B.     (Ind 
Simon  Says.    B. 
Silence  in  the  Courtho 
Wee  Bologna  Man  ( 
Weather  Cock.    B. 
Frog  in  the  Middle. 
Button,  Button.    J. 
Magic  Music.    J. 
Beast,  Bird,  or  Fish. 
Railroad  Game.    J. 
Trades.    B. 
Crambo.    B. 
Schoolmaster.    J. 
Observation.    B. 
Draw  a  Bucket  of  Water. 
The  Bird  Catcher.    B. 
The  Flower  and  the  Wind 
I  Say  "Stoop."    B. 
Flower  Match.    B. 


as  "Bird  Catcher.") 

B.     (Indexed  as  "Poor  Pussy.") 
to  "The  King  of  France").    B. 


B. 


B. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  67 

96.    Any  number  of  singing  games,  such  as: 

Looby  Loo.    B.  Farmer  in  the  Dell.    B. 

The  Mulberry  Bush.    B.  Go  Round  and  Round  the 

When  I  Was  a  Shoemaker.    J.        Village.    B. 
When  I  was  a  Young  Girl.    J.     Green  Gravel.    J. 

Jenny  Jones.    J. 
London  Bridge.    B. 

Numerous  other  singing  games  as  found  in  the  books  on  folk  dances 
and  singing  games. 

GAMES  FOR  CHILDREN  BETWEEN  THE  AGES 
TEN  AND  TWELVE  YEARS 

A  great  many  games  of  the  preceding  period  can  be  used  in  this 
period  also,  such  as  15, 16, 17, 18,  23,  26,  32,  39, 40,  48,  64. 

In  case  children  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twelve  years  have  not 
played  many  games,  emphasis  should  be  first  upon  circle  games  before 
attempting  to  teach  team  games. 

Games  New  to  this  Period 

1.  Bull  in  the  Ring.    B. 

2.  Sheepfold  (a  trifle  rougher  than  "Cat  and  Rat").    J. 

3.  Green  Wolf  (also  called  "Hunkety").    J. 

4.  Wolf.    B. 

5.  Sling  the  Monkey.    J. 

6.  Baste  the  Bear.    B. 

7.  Hopping  Bases.    J. 

8.  Cross  Tag.    B. 

9.  Hang  Tag.    B. 

10.  Follow  Tag. 

11.  Hunting  Tag. 

12.  Three  Deep.    J.    (Also  called  "Twos  and  Threes,"  "Last 

Man,"  and  "Third  Man").    B. 

13.  Hare  and  Hound.    J. 

14.  Chalk  the  Arrow  (a  variation  of  i'Hare  and  Hound"). 

15.  Relay  Race.    B. 

16.  Obstacle  Race.    J. 

17.  Fireman's  Race.    J. 

18.  Chariot  Race.    J. 

19.  Town  Ball.    J. 

20.  Ducks  on  the  Rock  (also  called  1'Stake  Guard").    B. 

21.  Roily  Polly.    B. 

22.  Crack  About.    B. 

23.  Spud.    B. 

24.  Kick  Over  (indexed  as  "Kick  Ball").    A. 

25.  Couple  Tag  (indexed  as  "Partner  Tag").    B. 

26.  Corner  Ball.    B. 

27.  Balloon  Ball.    B. 


68  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

28.  Keep  Ball.    J. 

29.  Drive  Ball  (also  called  "First  Ball").    B. 

30.  Tip  Cat.    J. 

31.  Ring  Ball.    J. 

32.  Wicket.    J. 

33.  American  Football.    J. 

34.  End  Ball.    B. 

35.  All  Up  Relay.    B. 

36.  Animal  Chase.    B. 

37.  Arch  Ball.    B. 

38.  Bag  Pile.    B. 

39.  Corner  Spy.    B. 

40.  Captain  Ball  II  or  III.    B. 

41.  Catch  of  Fish.    B. 

42.  Catch  the  Cone  (similar  to  "Number  Ball"  or  "Circle  Ball" 

with  the  exception  of  the  use  of  a  cone  instead  of  a  ball).    B. 

43.  Criss  Cross  Goal.    B. 

44.  High  Windows.    B. 

45.  Straddle  Ball  (also  called  "Astride  Ball").    B. 
40.    The  Hunt.    B. 

47.  Leap  Frog  Race.    B. 

48.  Crawling  between  Legs  Relay  Race. 

49.  Numbers  Change  (similar  to  "Interchange,"  "Exchange,"  or 

"French  Tag").    B. 

50.  Pass  Ball  Relay.    B. 

51.  Over  and  Under  Relay.    B. 

52.  Potato  Races: 

Potato  Race  I   B. 
"        "     II  B. 
"     Shuttle  Race.    B. 
"     Spoon  Race.    B. 

53.  Arch  Goal  Ball.    B. 

54.  Basket  Ball  distance  throw.    B. 

55.  Club  Snatch.    B. 

56.  Dumb  Bell  Tag.    B. 

57.  Third  Slap.    B. 

58.  Ball  Puss.    B. 

59.  Triple  Change.    B. 

60.  Passing  Race. 

GAMES  FOR  CHILDREN  BETWEEN  THE  AGES 
THIRTEEN  AND  EIGHTEEN  YEARS 

1.  Black  and  White  (similar  to  "Day  and  Night").    B. 

2.  Bombardment.    B. 

3.  Fence  Tag.    B. 

4.  Oyster  Shell  (good  for  boys).    B. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  69 


5.  Poison.    B. 

6.  Rolling  Target.    B. 

7.  Saddle  the  Nag  (good  for  boys).    B. 

8.  Slipper  Slap  (good  for  boys). 

9.  Third  Man.    B. 

10.  End  Ball.    B. 

11.  Corner  Ball.    B. 

12.  Dumb  Crombo.    B. 

13.  Emperor  Ball.    B. 

14.  Forcing  the  City  Gates.    B. 

15.  Fox  and  Geese.    B. 

16.  Line  Club  Bowls  (double).    B. 

17.  Mount  Ball  (good  for  boys).    B. 

18.  Odd  Man's  Cap.    B. 

19.  Pass  and  Toss  Relay.    B. 

20.  Pinch-0.    B. 

21.  Volley  Ball.    B. 

22.  Wand  Tug  of  War.    B. 

23.  Zigzag  Overhead  Toss.    B. 

24.  Dead  Ball.    B. 

25.  Bend  and  Stretch  Relay.    B. 

26.  Up  Jenkins  (quiet  game).    B. 

27.  Catch  and  Pull  Tug  of  War.    B. 

28.  Battle  Ball.    B. 

29.  Circle  Race.    B. 

30.  Circle  Relay.    B. 

31.  Line  Zigzag  III.    B. 

32.  Maze  Tag.    B. 

33.  Nine  Court  Basketball.    B. 

34.  Overtake.    B. 

35.  Poison  Snake.    B. 

36.  Square  Ball.    B. 

37.  War.    B. 

38.  Hen  Roost  (quiet  game).    B. 

39.  Round  Ball.    B. 

40.  Minister's  Cat  (quiet  game).    B. 

41.  Bound  Ball.    B. 

42.  Boundary  Ball.    B. 

43.  Sketches  (quiet  game).    B. 

44.  Circle  Club  Bowls.    B. 

45.  Circle  Zigzag.    B. 

46.  Japanese  Crab  Race.    B. 

47.  Line  Club  Bowls  (single).    B. 

48.  Master  of  the  Ring.    B . 

49.  Pig  in  a  Hole  (also  called  "  Driving  the  Pig  to  Market    or    Peg 

Ball").    B. 


70  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  T 

50.  Stool  Ball.    B. 

51.  Wand  Race.    B. 

52.  Basketball.    J. 

53.  Human  Burden  Race.    A. 

54.  Free  Hopping  (Rooster  Fight  or  Chicken  Fight).    A. 

55.  Foot  in  the  Ring.    B.     (Indexed  as  "Poison.") 

56.  Quoits.    J. 

57.  Playground  Ball.    B  &  P. 

58.  Tower  Ball  (also  called  "Hold  the  Fort"). 

59.  Hat  on  Back.    A.    (Indexed  as  "Cap  Tag.") 

60.  Hat  Ball  (also  called  "Nigger  Babies"  or  "Pitch  Cap").    B. 

61.  Double  Dodge  Ball.    B. 

62.  Base  Dodge  Ball  (also  called  "Bull  Pea").    B. 

63.  Soccer  Football.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library. 

64.  Progressive  Dodge  Ball.    B. 

65.  Dodge  Ball  in  Three  Fields.    B.     (Indexed  as  "Double  Dodge 

Ball.") 

66.  Run  Dodge  Ball.    B.     (Indexed  as  "Circle  Dodge  Ball.") 

67.  Captain  Ball.    B. 

68.  Rider  Ball  (also  called  "Mount  Ball"  and  "Horse  and  Rider"). 

B. 

69.  Battle  Ball.    B. 

70.  Tether  Ball  (also  called  "Tether  Tennis").    B. 

71.  Baseball.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library. 

72.  Football.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library. 

8.  Dancing.  There  are  several  types  of  dancing  used 
for  educational  purposes  in  schools  and  colleges  as  well  as 
for  recreational  forms  in  various  organizations,  such  as 
clubs,  settlements,  stores,  factories,  and  large  business 
houses.  An  evaluation  of  the  different  types  in  connection 
with  then1  uses  is  important. 

a.  Folk  dancing  (11).  Dances  of  the  people  of 
different  countries  have  been  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation  very  much  as  folk  stories 
have  been  perpetuated.  They  take  a  similar  place  in 
the  interpretation  of  folk  history  that  the  stories 
possess,  but  are  at  times  richer  in  their  delineation  of 
feelings  and  emotions  because  of  the  better  instru- 
ment employed  and  because  of  the  constant  association 
with  a  characteristic  music.  The  folk  dance  can  be 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  71 

used  as  a  means  to  teach  valuable  folk  lore  and 
custom  while  at  the  same  time  satisfying  a  very  whole- 
some desire  to  dance.  Its  use  in  school  and  college, 
and  as  recreation  for  selected  groups  is  to  be  approved. 

b.  Social  dancing.     The  attitude  of  the  public 
with  reference  to  the  social  dance  reflects  the  accepted 
customs  of  the  times.     While  recognizing  that  the 
social  dance  both  in  position  and  often  in  movement 
is,  between  the  sexes,  a  romantic  dance  with  certain 
erotic  features,  it  is  equally  important  to  state  that 
young  people  will  make  love  and  will  dance  and  that 
an  educator  should  be  interested  more  in  E^t^S 
desirable  standards,  concerned  more  in  promoting 
wliolesome  relations  between  the  sexes  than  in  at- 
tempting to  check  and  subdue  natural,  socially  useful 
impulses.    An  effort  to  imprison  Venus  not  inf  requently 
is  the  cause  of  unwholesome  habits  due  to  association 
in  places  without  good  standards.    The  school  and 
college  should  be  interested  hi  developing  normal 
wholesome  relations  between  the  two  sexes;  the  social 
dance  may  be  made  effective  in  doing  this.    It  serves 
admirably  for  recreational  purposes  and  would  accom- 
plish worth  while  hygienic  results  if  there  were  an 
improvement  hi  the  social  standards  of  men  and 
women,  and  if  late  hours  were  not  fashionable. 

c.  Natural  dancing.     Under  this  heading  should 
be  grouped  all  those  forms  that  work  from  the  ex- 
pression side  rather  than  from  the  technique  side. 
Lyric,  classic,  or  rhythmic  dancing  is  natural  if  it 
uses  natural  rhythms  and  forms  and  is  concerned  with 
expression  of  ideas  or  feelings. 

"  Aesthetic  "  dancing  is  to  be  condemned.    It  does 
not  belong  in  a  rational  physical  education  because, 

(1)  Its  forms  are  artificial. 

(2)  It  tends  to  develop  self -consciousness. 


72  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

(3)  It  does  not  serve  as  a  means  of  expression  for 
the  individual,  but  is  concerned  mainly  with  poses, 
techniaue,  and  difficult  motor  combinations.* 

V.  **** 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  RAPEER,  W.  L.    "Minimum  Essentials  for  Physical  Education 

and  a  Scale  for  Measuring  Results  of  Physical  Education." 
16th  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  Illinois. 
An  excellent  study  with  helpful  suggestions  for  efficiency 
standards. 

2.  STECHER,  W.  A.    The   Theory  and  Practice  of  Educational 

Gymnastics,  J.  J.  McVey,  Philadelphia,  1915. 
One  of  the  best  compilations  of  material  in  physical  education. 

3.  Speyer  School  Curriculum,  Teachers  College,  Bureau  of  Publi- 

cations, New  York  City. 

A  detailed  statement  of  the  program  of  different  grades  with 
acceptable  material  for  physical  education. 

4.  LILLIARD,  W.   HUSTON.     "The    Andover    Plan."    American 

Physical  Education  Review,  April,  1915,  p.  195. 
Describes  the  plan  in  use  at  Andover. 

5.  RAPEER,  W.  L.    Educational  Hygiene,  Scribners,  1915,  Chap. 

XXIII. 

An  excellent  study  of  all  aspects  of  educational  hygiene. 
Especially  valuable  for  its  presentation  of  the  entire  subject  in 

one  volume. 

6.  AYRES,  WILLIAMS,  AND  WOOD.  Healthful  Schools,  How  to  Build, 

Equip  and  Maintain  them,  Houghton  Mifflin  &  Company, 
Boston,  1918. 
An  authoritative  treatment  of  school  hygiene. 

7.  WILLIAMS,  JESSE  FEIRING.    "Health  Exercises  for  Every  Day 

Use."     Teachers  College  Record,  November,  1918,  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Teachers  College. 

A  statement  of  the  theory  of  natural  activities  with  a  setting-up 
drill  in  natural  movements. 

8.  HEBERT,    GEORGES.     Guide   pratique   d'Education    physique, 

Paris,  1916. 
An  exposition  of  the  Hebert  method  of  natural  gymnastics. 

9.  WILLIAMS,  JESSE  FEIRING.     "  The  Education  of  the  Emotions." 

Teachers  College  Record,  May,  1920,  Bureau  of  Publications, 
Teachers  College. 

A  study  of  the  psychologic  bases  for  the  claim  that  physical 
education  may  secure  moral  and  social  values. 

*  Williams,  Jesse  Fairing.     "  The  Education  of  the  Emotions."     Teachers  College  Record. 
May,  1920. 


GYMNASIUM  AND  PLAYGROUND  73 

10.  ANGELL,  E.  D.     Play,  Little,  Brown  &  Company,  Boston, 

1910. 

ARNOLD,  E.  H.  Gymnastic  Games  Classified,  Privately  pub- 
lished. 

BANCROFT,  JESSIE  H.  Games  for  the  Playground,  Home, 
School,  and  Gymnasium,  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York, 
1915. 

BANCROFT  and  PULVERMACHER.  Handbook  of  Athletic  Games, 
The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1916. 

JOHNSON,  G.  E.  Education  by  Plays  and  Games,  Ginn  & 
Company,  Boston,  1907. 

STONEROAD,  REBECCA.  Gymnastic  Stories  and  Plays,  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Company,  New  York,  1899. 

SUDER,  HENRY.  Songs,  Roundels,  and  Games,  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, Chicago,  1918. 

Game  books  with  a  wide  variety  of  games. 

11.  CRAMPTON,  C.  WARD.    Folk  Dance  Book  for  Elementary  Schools, 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Company,  New  York  City,  1913. 
BURCHENAL,  ELIZABETH.    Folk  Dances  and  Singing  Games, 
1909. 

Dances  of  the  People,  1913. 
Folk  Dances  of  Denmark,  1915. 
Folk  Dances  of  Finland,  1915. 
American  Country  Dances,  1918. 
G.  Schirmer,  New  York  City. 
SHARP,  CECIL.     Country  Dance  Book,  4  parts. 
The  Morris  Book,  5  Vol. 
Sword  Dances  of  Northern  England. 
Novello  &  Company,  Ltd.,  London,  1912.    Agents— H.  W. 

Gray  &  Company,  2  West  45th  St.,  New  York  City. 
CRAWFORD,  CAROLINE.    Dramatic  Games  and  Dances  for  Little 
Children,  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Company,  61  E.  9th  St.,  New  York 

City. 
Folk  Dances  and  Games,  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Company,  New  York 

City,  1908. 
Rhythms  of  Childhood,  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Company,  New  York 

City,  1915. 
FROST,  HELEN.    The  Clog  Dance  Book,  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 

New  York  City,  1921. 
GULICK,  L.  H.    Folk  and  National  Dances,  Pamphlet,  Russell 

Sage  Foundation,  New  York. 
The  Healthful  Art  of  Dancing,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company, 

New  York,  1911. 

HINMAN,  M.  W.    Gymnastic  and  Folk  Dancing,  4  Vols.,  Pub- 
lished by  the  author,  1916. 
Excellent  dance  material. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICAL 
EDUCATION 

First  consideration.— In  attempting  an  organization  of 
a  department  of  physical  education,  the  president,  super- 
intendent, or  board  of  trustees,  or  directors  should  at- 
tempt to  arrive  at  an  understanding  of  what  they  want 
that  department  to  mean  and  contribute  to  the  life  of  the 
school.  This  is  of  paramount  importance.  That  having 
been  determined,  the  problem  then  is  to  select  a  director 
who  will  be  able  to  understand  and  work  toward  the  goal 
set  by  the  school  administration.  (Cf .  Chapter  V.)  *  The 
plan  of  hiring  a  teacher  to  supervise  the  exercise  of  the 
students  results  too  often  in  a  type  of  department  that  is 
interested  only  in  perspiration  and  gymnastic  exhibitions. 
It  should  be  clear  at  this  point  that  modern  physical  edu- 
cation does  not  accept  such  aims. 

After  the  standards  of  work  and  the  general  aim  of  the 
department  have  been  determined  and  the  director  ap- 
pointed, the  plan  of  organization  may  be  considered. 
There  are  different  types. 

Public  school  department  of  physical  education. — In  the 
public  school  field  the  usual  arrangement  places  the 
director  or  supervisor  directly  responsible  to  the  super- 
intendent of  schools  for  the  conduct  of  the  work  of  the 
school  programs.  The  teachers  of  physical  education  are 
usually  directly  responsible  to  the  principal  of  the  schools 
in  which  they  are  working,  and  secondarily  responsible 
to  the  supervisor  of  physical  education.  This  has  some 
advantages  in  unifying  the  work  of  a  particular  school; 

74 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT  75 

it  is  theoretically  undesirable  if  it  permits  the  principal  to 
determine  the  character,  extent,  and  kind  of  work  given. 
The  organization  in  the  larger  cities  is  as  follows: 

Chicago.  Special  teachers  of  physical  education  are 
directly  responsible  to  the  principal  of  the  schools  in  which 
f.hpy  flrpi  working  and  secondarily  to  the^supervisor  of 
physical  education.  The  supervisor  in  turifls  an  advisor 
to  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  matters  relating  to 
physical  education.  " 

Baltimore.  The  supervisor  of  physical  training  directs 
this  work  in  all  the  elementary  schools  and  to  a  somewhat 
less  extent  in  the  secondary  schools.  For  this  purpose,  he 
has  thirteen  assistant  supervisors  helping  him  in  elemen- 
tary schools.  In  the  secondary  schools,  the  special  super- 
visors of  physical  training  are  members  of  the  faculties  of 
the  schools  but  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  super- 
visor. This  department,  as  well  as  all  others  in  the  schools, 
is  under  the  control  of  the  superintendent  whose  approval 
is  required  for  all  its  activities.  The  relation  to  the  board 
is  entirely  through  the  superintendent.* 

Kansas  City  (Missouri).  The  director  of  physical 
education  is  responsible  to  the  superintendent  of  schools. 
The  director  has  twenty-five  assistants,  who  report  di- 
rectly to  him. 

San  Francisco.  The  director  of  physical  education  is 
appointed  by  the  _ superintendent  of  schools  and_the 
board  of  education.  The  director  of  physical  education 
is  given  the  complete  responsibility  of  organizing  and  con- 
ducting a  department  of  physical  education  and  must 
conduct  the  work  in  accordance  with  the  California  state 
law  of  compulsory  physical  education. 

The  department  consists  of  a  director  of  physical 
education  for  elementary  and  high  schools,  five  super- 
visors of  elementary  schools  (women),  one  supervisor  of 

*  See  the  Baltimore  School  Survey,  1920-21,  Vol.  2,  pp.  245-320. 


76  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

boys'  athletics  of  the  elementary  school  (man),  and  enough 
instructors  (men  and  women)  to  care  for  the  students  of 
the  five  high  schools  according  to  the  size  of  the  school— 
approximately  three  hundred  to  three  hundred  and  fifty 
children  for  each  instructor.  There  are  twenty-four 
teachers  of  physical  education  in  this  department  of  five 
high  schools  and  eighty-five  elementary  schools. 

Denver.  Physical  education  in  Denver  is  under  three 
divisions,  elementary  schools,  playgrounds,  and  cadet 
corps.  The  elementary  schools  and  playgrounds  are  under 
the  supervision  of  one  director;  the  cadet  corps  is  under 
another  director  who  is  also  scout  executive.  The  work 
is  organized  along  the  lines  of  the  New  York  state  organ- 
ization. 

Seattle.  The  director  of  physical  education  is  in  charge 
of  physical  education  in  the  grades  and  high  schools.  He 
is  directly  responsible  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  for 
the  work  done  in  his  department. 

Boston.  The  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Boston  Public 
Schools  define  the  duties  and  responsibih'ties  of  the  director 
of  physical  training  as  follows: 

The  Director  of  Physical  Training  shall  have  supervision  and  control 
of  physical  training,  military  drill,  athletics,  sports,  games,  and  plays 
engaged  in  by  pupils,  or  conducted  in  buildings,  yards,  and  grounds 
under  the  control  of  the  School  Committee,  or  in  other  yards,  buildings, 
and  grounds  that  it  may  have  the  right  to  use  for  such  purposes;  he 
shall  assign  the  duties  to  be  performed  by  the  various  teachers  and  em- 
ployees who  conduct  the  activities;  be  responsible  for  the  efficiency 
and  character  of  service  rendered  by  each;  also  for  the  proper  care  of 
all  physical  training  and  military  equipment  and  supplies. 

Detroit.  An  unusual  arrangement  that  is  still  in  an 
experimental  and  tentative  stage  relates  the  assistant 
director  of  health  education  to  a  director  of  teacher  training 
and  research.  This  director  holds  a  position  similar  to 
that  of  an  assistant  superintendent.  The  accompanying 
diagram  (Fig.  3)  has  been  furnished  by  the  director. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT 


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ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT  79 

Philadelphia.  A  diagram  indicating  the  organization 
in  the  Philadelphia  schools  is  given  in  figure  4.  It  shows 
the  director  of  physical  education  under  the  supervision  of 
an  associate  superintendent  and  reporting  indirectly  to 
the  superintendent  of  schools.  If  any  one  of  the  asso- 
ciate superintendents  were  prepared  by  training  or  experi- 
ence to  supervise  all  the  health  aspects  of  the  school,  and 
if  the  director  of  physical  education  reported  to  him,  there 
would  be  important  reasons  for  the  type  of  organization 
suggested  here.  An  associate  superintendent  in  charge  of 
special  activities,  who  will  be  inclined  to  think  of  physical 
education  as  presenting  the  same  problem  as  music  or 
drawing,  offers  merely  an  arrangement  by  which  the 
superintendent  delegates  fields  of  supervision. 

New  York  City.  In  New  York  City  there  is  relatively  a 
wide  participation  in  all  the  activities  affecting  the  health  of 
school  children.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  director  of  physi- 
cal training  has  three  main  divisions  of  work:  (1)  physical 
training;  (2)  educational  hygiene;  and  (3)  athletics. 

The  athletic  program  is  very  well  developed  in  cooper- 
ation with  the  Public  School  Athletic  League.  The 
director  of  physical  training  in  the  schools  serves  as  sec- 
retary of  the  boys'  branch  of  the  league  and  usually  a 
similar  position  in  the  girls'  branch  is  held  by  one  of  the 
assistant  women  directors.  This  arrangement  facilitates 
the  school  program  of  physical  training.  The  syllabus  in 
hygiene  provides  direction  for  the  hygiene  of  instruction, 
instruction  in  hygiene,  inspection  of  pupils,  and  observa- 
tions for  physical  defects.  The  program  of  physical  train- 
ing, educational  hygiene,  and  athletics  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  the  classroom  teacher  who  has  had  little  or  no 
training.  Obviously  such  a  condition  is  a  serious  handi- 
cap. The  work  should  be  departmentalized  at  least 
down  to  the  fourth  grade. 

The  following  chart  (Fig.  5)  indicates  the  organization: 


80 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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A  suggested  plan  of  organization. — Physical  education 
deals  with  activities  that  affect  the  health  of  school 
children.  It  represents  only  one  of  the  factors  in  the 
health  field.  An  organization  that  would  centralize  in  one 
office  all  the  phases  of  school  life  concerned  and  entering 
into  the  health  of  the  children  would  provide  a  supervisor 


THE  DIVISIONS  OF  EDUCATIONAL  HYGIENE 
SUPERVISOR  OF  HYGIENE 


Medical 
supervision 

School 
sanitation 

Physical 
education 

Teaching 
hygiene 

Hygienic 
teaching 

Nurses  and  doc- 

School sites  and 

Play  and  play- 

Health    educa- 

"The Hygiene  of 

tors 

architecture 

grounds 

tion  of  teach- 

Instruction" 

Inspections    and 

Lighting 

Physical     train- 

ers < 

Fatigue,  over- 

annual   exam- 

Heating 

ing  and  gym- 

Advising choice 

work  and  un- 

inations 

Drinking   water 

nastics 

of     best     hy- 

der work 

School  clinics 

and  fountains 

Medical  gym- 

giene texts 

The  type  of 

Health  census 

School   cleaning 

nastics 

and  topics 

books 

Discovering 

Vacuum    clean- 

Athletics  and 

Public    hygiene 

Hygiene    of 

health  needs 

ers 

leagues 

study  and  co- 

school sub- 

Cooperating 

School  baths 

Posture  and  cor- 

operation 

jects 

with  Boards  of 

Hygienic    toilet 

rectional    ex- 

Health    educa- 

Interest and  at- 

Health and 

facilities 

ercises 

tion    of    par- 

tention 

private  organ- 

School seats  and 

Assisting  in 

ents 

Inter-recitation 

izations 

desks 

medical  super- 

Feeding,   cloth- 

recreation 

Open  air  schools 

Decoration 

vision 

ing,    sleep    oi 

Transforming 

Limiting  doctors 

The  standard 

Recreation 

children 

neurasthenic 

to   examina- 

schoolroom 

School  excur- 

Home     hygiene 

and  "cranky" 

tions,  supervi- 

Fire-proof   con- 

sions and 

in  domestic 

teachers 

sion  of  nurses, 

struction 

tramps 

science 

Motor  aspects  of 

and    work    in 

Health  .rest,  and 

Boy  Scouts  and 

Vocational    hy- 

teaching 

clinic 

emergency 

Camp  Fire 

giene    in    in- 

The    gospel     of 

Psychologists, 

rooms 

Girls 

dustrial    sub- 

work 

oculists,     sur- 
geons, dentists, 

Playrooms    and 
playgrounds 

Gymnasiums 
and     athletic 

jects 
Talks  by  doc- 

The  hygiene   of 
joy  in  schools 

physicians 

Open   window 

fields 

tors,     nurses, 

Preventing  phys- 

Supervisor    of 

rooms 

Swimming    and 

and     special- 

ical defects  and 

school  feeding 
Scientific    study 

Supervision     of 
janitors 

bathing 
Pools,    showers, 

ists 
First  aid 

pathological 
conditions 

of    prevention 

Hygienic    cloak 

and  beaches 

Sex  hygiene 

School  pro- 

and   cause    of 

rooms 

Folk  dancing 

Studying     com- 

grams 

disease 

Drying  and 

Physical  educa- 

munity health 

Part  time   or 

Careful    records 

warming  seats 

tors  with  med- 

problems and 

whole  time 

emphasizing 
serious    ail- 

Investigations 
of      recircula- 

ical  knowledge 
H.  S.  cadets 

methods  of 
improvement 

Influence  of  va- 
cations and 

ments     found 

tion,     humid- 

Cla s  sroom 

Daily  oral  ques- 

holidays 

and  cured 

ity,   air-clean- 

games 

tionnaire  on 

Health  individu- 

Training   school 

ing,    disinfec- 

Pay  for  super- 

home   hy- 

ality 

nurses  for   all 
inspections  and 

tion,  etc. 

vising  play 
after  school 

giene,   use   of 
tooth     brush, 

Hygienic    effects 
of  different 

examinations 

and  Saturdays 

coffee    drink- 

methods 

Nurses  as  attend- 

Cultivating  the 

ing,     ventila- 

The   teacher    as 

ance  officers 

Greek  ideal  of 

tion 

medical  guar- 

physical  edu- 

Health  knowl- 

dian 

caton  and 

edge 

mental  perfec- 

Health ideals 

tion 

Health  efficiency 

82  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


hygiene^     Rapeer  (1)  strongly  urges  such 


a  type  of  organization.    He  places  under  the  division  of 
educational  hygiene  five  departments  (page  81). 

Rapeer's  organization  is  quite  ideal.  In  practice,  how- 
ever, it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  find  the  person  properly 
qualified  to  head  such  an  organization.  If  the  applicant 
has  had  training  in  medicine  and  physical  education,  he 
frequently  lacks  that  other  essential  —  an  educational  point 
of  view.  When  the  right  man  can  be  found,  the  unified 
organization  is  quite  the  best. 

The  supervisor  of  educational  hygiene*  should  be  r< 
sponsible  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  ancT  the^board 
of  education.  It  would  b&  desirable  lor  this  office  to  be 
able  to  report  to  the  board  of  education  through  a  com- 
mittee on  hygiene.  The  diagram  in  figure  6  would  seem 
to  present  a  desirable  type  of  organization  . 

Another  plan  (Fig.  7)  offering  different  arrangement 
with  a  better  distribution  is  based  upon  the  results  of  a 
survey  of  the  Medical  Inspection  Hygiene  Teaching  and 
Physical  Education  of  the  Baltimore  Public  Schools.  This 
plan  is  superior  to  the  preceding  ones  in  that  the  director 
may  be  chosen  largely  for  his  executive  and  adminis- 
trative abilities.  The  supervisors  would  be  responsible  for 
the  technical  work.  This  would  not  require  that  the 
director  be  a  doctor  of  medicine. 

University  department  of  physical  education.  —  The 
tendency  in  university  physical  education  is  to  center  all 
the  physical  activities  of  the  students,  and  to  place  under 
one  head  the  responsibility  for  physical  education  in  the 
gymnasium  or  on  the  athletic  field.  There  are  promising 
instances  of  a  movement  that  will  take  away  the  control 
of  athletics  from  the  student  association  and  will  place  the 
athletic  teams  on  the  same  standing  with  reference  to 
responsibility  and  control  as  that  of  the  credit  classes  of 

*  Director  of  hygiene  and  physical  education  would  be  a  more  satisfactory  title. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT 


83 


84 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT  85 

lihe  gymnasium.  In  some  places,  alumni  councils,  student 
boards,  and  quasi-faculty  committees  continue  to  work 
for  the  old  specialized  varsity  team,  but  the  more  progress- 
ive institutions  have  broken  clean  from  the  old  control. 

The  problem  in  the  colleges  and  universities  for  educa- 
tive athletics  is  a  problem  of  satisfying  the  alumni  who 
want  what  they  had  when  they  were  college  lights.  Some 
one  has  said,  "  A  good  alumnus  is  a  dead  alumnus."  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  alumni  influence  in  athletics  Js 
more  .harmful  than  helpful,  that  its  vision  is  not,  educa- 
tional but  spectacular  and  that  all  the  advances  in  method^ 
toward  amateurism  extensive'  fit.Mfttip.gj 


approach  have  been  made  m  spite  of  alumni  opposition. 
Itfwould  seem  to  be  a  wise  plan  for  departments  of  physical 
education  to  look  to  the  training  of  alumni  and  make  a 
definite  effort  "  to  educate  the  undergraduate  body  in 
educational  athletics  to  the  end  that  as  alumni  their  voice 
and  influence  may  be  operative  on  the  side  of  education. 

Oberlin  College  represents  a  good  type  of  organization. 
A  letter  from  Professor  C.  W.  Savage  follows: 

We  have  no  student  athletic  association.  All  athletic  activities, 
intramural  and  intercollegiate,  are  handled  by  the  staff  of  the  depart- 
ment. This  consists  of  the  following  men  at  the  present  time: 

One  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Education  and  Director  of 
the  Gymnasium. 

One  Professor  of  Physical  Education  and  Director  of  Athletics. 

One  Associate  Professor  of  Physical  Education  who  coaches  inter- 
collegiate football  and  track. 

One  Assistant  Professor  of  Physical  Education  who  coaches  inter- 
collegiate basketball  and  baseball. 

One  instructor,  who  assists  all  the  other  members  of  the  staff  as 
needed,  and  is  directly  responsible  for  intramural  activities  such  as 
interclass  football,  basketball,  and  baseball,  including  inter-boarding 
house  and  inter-rooming  house  baseball.  Hand  ball,  volley  ball  and 
giant  volley  ball  (cage  ball  is  used),  and  mass  athletic  competition 
between  the  divisions  of  required  physical  education  classes  are  also 
promoted  by  him. 

Purchase  of  supplies  and  equipment  and  arrangement  of  intercol- 
legiate schedules  are  handled  by  the  Director  of  Athletics.  The  stock 


86  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

room  is  handled  by  our  present  janitor,  who  happens  to  be  just  the  right 
man  for  that  kind  of  work.  He  looks  after  the  repairs  and  has  all  the 
equipment  ready  when  needed.  He  is  given  student  assistants  in  the 
care  of  the  gymnasium  in  order  to  enable  him  to  do  this  work  with  the 
equipment.  (April  27,  1921.) 


A  graphic  representation  of  a  good  type  of  organization, 
different  from  the  Oberlin  idea,  is  given  in  figure  8. 

A  good  type  of  organization  of  student  activities  intro- 
duced at  the  University  of  Cincinnati  failed  because  of  the 
antagonism  aroused  by  the  method  used  in  introducing  it. 
The  plan  is  outlined  in  figure  9. 

There  are  three  prevailing  views  on  organization  of 
athletics  in  the  school  or  college. 

One  view  looks  upon  the  program  in  the  gymnasium  as 
part  of  the  work  of  the  school  and  considers  athletics  as 
"play/'  and  therefore  as  an  affair  of  the  students,  to  be 
controlled  to  be  sure,  but  not  to  be  fostered  or  directed  as 
a  part  of  the  educational  policy  of  the  institution.  It  is 
needless  to  remark  that  holding  such  a  view,  the  officers 
of  administration  are  concerned  mainly  with  "  sit  ting  on 
the  lid." 

The  second  view  looks  upon  athletics  as  a  very  vital  and 
real  educational  means  and  holds  that  its  direction,  super- 
vision, and  control  should  not  lie  in  the  student  body,  nor 
in  an  alumni  council,  but  should  reside  in  the  faculty  and 
particularly  in  the  department  of  physical  education.  This 
view  appreciates  that  games  and  athletic  sports  may  be, 
when  wisely  conducted,  valuable  means  of  bodily  training, 
but  is  not  contending  for  this  control  on  the  basis  of  its 
body-building  properties.  It  is  contending  for  educational 
supervision  because  of  the  prominent  educational  values 
inherent  in  competitive  sport.  It  seeks  student  coopera- 
tion, leadership,  and  followership  always  with  the  under- 
standing that  guidance,  advice,  and  counsel  by  the  faculty 
axe  needed. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT 


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PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT  89 

The  third  view  holds  that  the  "work"  is  to  be  given  to 
the  pupils  and  students  irrespective  of  their  likes  or  dis- 
likes in  the  matter. 

We  support  the  second  view  because  we  know  that 
it  may  under  proper  development  secure  the  most  satis- 
factory results  for  all  concerned. 

Organization  of  physical  education  for  girls  and  women. 
A  department  of  physical  education  to  serve  girls  in  high 
school  and  young  women  in  college  should  conform  in 
principle  to  the  same  general  plans  as  given  above.  There 
are  important  values  to  keep  in  mind  in  organizing  a 
department  for  girls'  work  in  physical  education.  These 
may  be  given  as  follows: 

1.  Women  should  teach  girls'  classes  and  should 
coach  girls'  athletic  teams.     The  practice  in  high 
schools  of  selecting  men  to  teach  girls'  gymnastic  classes 
or  to  coach  their  teams  is  distinctly  bad.    The  man 
sets  men's  standards  in  performance;    he  fails  to 
appreciate  the  girl's  limitations  in  strength  and  her 
periodic  disability. 

2.  The  activities  in  the  gymnasium,  on  the  play- 
ground, or  athletic  field  should  be  organized  around 
the  idea  of  girls'  specific  standards  and  accomplish- 
ments.   The  use  of  boys'  and  men's  athletic  events 
or  men's  gymnastic  and  calisthenic  movements  for 
girls  and  young  women  is  unsuited  in  many  cases. 
To  determine  activities  that  are  acceptable  for  girls 
is  the  most  important  single  work  for  the  director  of 
girls. 

State  organization  of  physical  education. — The  recent 
development  of  interest  in  the  plans  for  state  physi- 
cal education  has  shown  signs  of  some  permanence. 
In  February,  1921,  twenty-three  states  had  passed 
laws  as  shown  in  the  following  compilation  by  Daniel 
Chase: 


90 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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Y 

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California  

M 

1917 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

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20-120 

Y 

Delaware  

P 

1918 

G 

Georgia  

M 

1920 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

30 

Y 

Illinois 

M 

1915 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

60-  60 

Y 

Indiana  

P 

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Y 

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15-120 

Y 

Y 

Kentucky  . 

M 

1920 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

30 

Y 

Y 

Maine  

M 

1919 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Marvland  

M 

1918 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

15-120 

Y 

Michigan  

M 

1919 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y1 

Y 

Y 

Mississippi 

M 

1920 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Nevada  

M? 

1917 

Y 

YT 

New  Jersey  

M 

1917 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

30-160 

Y 

New  York 

M 

1916 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

20 

Y 

Oregon 

M 

1919 

G 

Y 

Y 

20 

•  •  • 

M4 

1919 

Y 

Rhode  Island.  .  .  . 

M 

1917 

20 

Y 

Utah  

P 

1919 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Virginia 

p 

1920 

G 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y6 

Y 

Washington.  .  . 

M 

1919 

G 

Y 

Y 

20-90 

Idaho 

M 

1919 

G 

Y 

North  Dakota.  .  . 

M 

1899 

G 

Y 

Ohio.  .. 

M 

1904 

Y 

Y 

1  Mandatory  for  cities,  permissive  for  others;  funds  for  same  local. 

2  For  high  schools,  permissive  elsewhere. 

3  Based  on  state-wide  taxation. 

4  In  cities  of  the  first  class,  permissive  in  others. 

5  For  one  year  only,  after  by  annual  appropriation. 

6  Supervision  covers  medical  inspection  also. 
M  Indicated  mandatory  law. 

P  Indicated  permissive  law. 

G  Indicated  general  application. 

Y  Indicated  yes. 

The  state  organizations  follow  different  plans: 

1.  One  state  provides  a  state  supervisor  with  as- 
sistant supervisors  who  see  that  the  state  syllabus  is 
used  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  law. 

2.  Another  provides  a  state  supervisor  without 
salary. 


NOTE. — Additional  information  on  the  status  of  state  and  national  legislation  for  physical 
education  may  be  secured  from  National  Physical  Education  Service,  309  Homer  Building, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  DEPARTMENT  91 

3.  Another  provides  a  state  supervisor,  a  well  or- 
ganized syllabus,  but  no  inspectors. 

It  may  be  noted,  therefore,  that  a  state  organization  for 
physical  education  should  require  a  state  director  who 
shall  be  director  of  physical  education  and  if  possible  of 
health  education  also.  There  should  be  a  well  written, 
complete,  modern  syllabus,  with  the  major  emphasis  on 
play  and  games,  such  as  the  California  syllabus  is. 
Finally,  there  should  be  enough  inspectors  or  supervisors 
who  would  be  stimulating  and  directing  field  agents, 
working  in  districts  divided  on  rural  and  urban  lines  and 
then  geographically. 

National  physical  education  (2). — Congress  has  in 
committee  a  bill  for  nation-wide  physical  education.  It  is 
modeled  along  lines  similar  to  the  Smith-Towner  bill  for 
vocational  education.  The  organization  of  a  department 
of  education  in  the  Federal  government  with  provision  for 
national  physical  education  appears  a  likely  development 
in  the  near  future.  Such  organization  might  take  a  very 
helpful  position  in  promoting  physical  education  by  work 
along  three  lines : 

1.  Bureau  of    records   and    results.     A  research 
bureau   securing   information   concerning   the   best 
results  available  in  the  field,  and  promoting  careful 
study  to  test  and  measure  results  and  procedures 
scientifically. 

2.  Bureau  of  expert  service  and  advice.     It  is  con- 
ceivable that  enormous  waste  in  physical  education 
could  be  prevented  by  having  a  central  authority 
prepared  to  give  to  the  states  expert  information, 
advice,  and  guidance  in  physical  education. 

3.  Bureau   of  teacher    training.      Finally,   there 
should  be  provided  a  bureau  to  help  set  standards, 
to  help  determine  qualifications,  and  to  make  possible 
a  sufficient  number  of  adequately  trained  teachers. 


92  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  RAPEER,  W.  L.    Educational  Hygiene,  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York,  1915. 

An  excellent  compilation  under  one  editor  of  material  treating 
all  aspects  of  school  hygiene. 

2.  CAPPER,  ARTHUR.    "Universal  Physical  Education  is  Essen- 

tial."    The  Nation's  Health,  Chicago,  Illinois,  April,  1922, 

pp.  280-281. 

EATON,  H.  E.     "Education,  a  National  Problem."    Educa- 
tional Review,  June,  1919,  p.  27. 
CHENEY,  S.     "Building  up  our  National  Physique."    Journal 

of  Education,  May  1,  1919,  p.  489. 
DREW,  A.  L.     "  Growth  of  the  Physical  Education  Movement." 

Journal  of  Education,  February  19,  1920,  p.  208. 
ESTCOURT,  H.  S.     "Physical  Education  a  National  Necessity." 

Journal  of  Education,  May  13,  1920,  p.  535. 
KASSON,  F.  H.     "Universal   Physical  Education."     Journal 

of  Education,  December  11,  1919,  p.  604. 
Legislation  for  Physical  Education,  Bulletin  No.  40,  National 

Bureau  of  Education,  1918. 
ELIOT,  C.  W.     "Defects  in  American  Education  Revealed  by 

the  War."    School  and  Society,  January  4,  1919,  p.  1. 
FORSYTHE,   W.   E.     "Reconstruction — Physical   Education." 

School  and  Society,  May  17,  1919,  p.  597. 
Important  and  timely  articles  on  physical  education  as  a 

national  need. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

THE  TEACHEK,  SUPERVISOR,  OR  DIRECTOR  OF 
PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  selection  of  teacher,  supervisor,  or  director. — A 

common  method  of  selecting  teachers  of  physical  educa- 
tion is  by  writing  to  teachers'  agencies,  and  choosing  the 
one  from  their  offering  that  seems  to  have  had  the  most 
experience  or  to  possess  qualifications  that  appear  im- 
portant. In  this  way  a  school  in  one  county  may  obtain 
a  teacher'  advocating  a'  certain  system  of  gymnastics 
while  a  neighboring  county  selects  a  teacher  having 
opposite  aims  and  using  opposite  methods  and  materials. 
Both  teachers  cannot  be  right  in  the  sense  that  they  both 
represent  the  best  in  the  field  of  physical  education  and  the 
result  is  that  certain  schools  are  doomed  under  the  present 
practice  to  inadequate  visionless  training  and  leadership 
in  immensely  important  activities.  This  situation  has 
been  stated  in  a  recent  paper*  as  follows: 

Our  normal  schools  are  not  meeting  their  problems  in  a  way  which 
will  give  us  national  unity  in  physical  education  in  the  most  effective 
way.  One  group  teaches  German  gymnastics,  another  school  special- 
izes in  Swedish  gymnastics,  a  school  in  a  different  section  teaches  an 
eclectic  compound  with  such  success  that  our  magazines  are  constantly 
publishing  such  anachronisms  as,  "A  New  System  of  Physical  Educa- 
tion," "My  System,"  "The  Jonesville  System  of  Physical  Training" 
etc.  There  is  antagonism  between  the  schools  with  reference  to  the 
content  of  their  offering;  the  rivalry  should  be  on  the  basis  of  the  pe* 
sonality  and  effectiveness  of  the  teaching  staff. 

axty 

*  Williams,    Jesse    Feiring.     "Proposals   for    Preparedness    in    Physical/Education." 
American  Physical  Education  Review.     November,  1916. 

93 


94  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

There  is  need  for  a  centralized  governmental  agency  to 
provide  teachers  of  physical  education  (1).  Such  an 
agency  would  determine  the  kind  of  training  and  experi- 
ence most  valuable  and  would  serve  communities  seeking 
teachers  in  such  a  way  that  at  any  time  or  place,  the  ac- 
cepted source  of  supply  and  the  field  in  need  would  be 
brought  together.  At  present  no  such  agency  of  govern- 
ment exists.  It  is  therefore  extremely  important  that 
schools  and  colleges  and  institutions  of  all  kinds  using 
physical  education  in  their  programs  should  be  familiar 
with  the  different  types  of  training  given  to  students  of 
physical  education.  Consideration  should  be  given  not 
only  to  the  character  of  the  practical  work  done  but  also 
to  the  point  of  view  held  and  philosophy  and  theory  pre- 
sented. The  success  or  failure  of  the  work  depends  upon 
the  type  of  teacher  selected  (2). 

Two,  three,  and  four  year  courses. — The  training  of 
teachers  of  physical  education  varies  widely.  Most  of  the 
schools  require  a  high  school  certificate,  although  this  is 
not  uniform.  The  two  year  courses  provide  the  high 
school  graduate  with  instruction  in  gymnastics,  dancing, 
theory  of  physical  education,  physiology,  and  anatomy. 
The  three  year  courses  give  the  same  essential  courses  and 
additional  instruction  in  hygiene  and  public  health.  The 
four  year  courses  provide  in  addition  to  the  professional 
work  in  physical  education,  courses  in  English,  history, 
science,  and  modern  languages.  The  four  year  courses 
offer  a  degree  of  A.B.  or  B.S.  for  successful  completion  of 
the  work.  The  two  and  three  year  courses  grant  diplomas 
to  the  graduates.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Physical 
Education,  (B.P.E.)  is  given  by  the  International  Y.  M. 
1  A.  College  and  the  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Gymnastics 
(B.O1."1  N  by  the  Normal  College  of  the  American  Gym- 
nastic i  ^  ion.  Both  of  these  degrees  require  four  years 
but  lack  the  sanctions  of  the  A.B.  or  B.S.  The  Normal 


THE  TEACHER,  SUPERVISOR,  OR  DIRECTOR         95 

College  of  the  American  Gymnastic  Union  gives  a  two- 
vear  course  leading  to  the  title  of  Graduate  in  Gymnastics 
(G.G.). 

The  tendency  in  modern  education  today  is  to  place  the 
child  in  an  environment  where  it  may  receive  wholesome 
contacts.  The  demand  on  teachers  is  for  leadership,  high 
standards,  and  personal  influence  of  a  high  character.  As 
a  specialist,  the  physical  education  teacher  must  be 
skilled  and  equipped  by  training  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
instruction.  In  a  larger  sense,  that  equipment  should 
mean  the  ability  to  understand  and  appreciate,  to  guide 
and  advise,  to  teach  and  inspire.  No  particular  course  of 
studies  can  give  these  qualities.  They  come  with  maturity 
and  developed  ideals. 

Points  in  a  good  teacher. — In  the  final  analysis,  of 
course,  the  test  of  the  teacher  is  in  the  school  where  he 
works.  The  prize- winning  dog  in  the  show  is  to  be  judged 
in  the  bush.  And  yet  it  is  important  to  evaluate  training, 
experience,  and  personality  as  elements  of  probable  success. 

1 .  Training.  At  one  time  all  trained  teachers  of  physi- 
cal education  were  graduates  of  normal  schools  of  a  two- 
year  course.  To-day  the  choice  is  to  be  made  between 
graduates  of  a  four-year  college  course  that  includes  two 
years  of  professional  training  and  graduates  of  the  private 
normal  school  giving  two  and  in  a  few  cases  three  years 
instruction.  The  college  graduate  is  the  better  prospect 
in  general  because  of  the  contact  with  men  and  women  of 
college  rank  in  students  and  instructors,  because  of  the 
broader  training  with  the  chance  of  obtaining  a  broader 
point  of  view,  and  because  of  the  value  that  comes  to  a 
special  student  studying  in  an  atmosphere  of  general 
education. 

Whether  in  private  normal  school  or  university,  the 
course  of  study  that  provides  in  the  professional  training 
an  emphasis  on  play,  dancing,  and  athletics,  as  contrasted 


96  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

with  an  emphasis  on  formal  gymnastics,  is  most  in  touch 
with  the  times  and  the  trend  of  modern  physical  education. 

2.  Experience.    The  kind  and  amount  of  experience 
in  teaching  is  important.    Experience  of  the  same  general 
type  of  work  as  called  for  in  the  new  assignment  is  usually 
worth  more  than  an  unrelated  type.    A  supervisor  should 
always  have  had  experience  hi  teaching  children.     A 
director  should  have  had  a  wide  range  of  experience, 
varying,  if  possible,  from  the  club,  settlement,  and  school 
to  the  college.    This  experience,  to  be  most  valuable,  must 
have  been  successful.    The  test  here  is  whether  anything 
worth  while  in  the  experience  was  accomplished.     It  is 
needless  to  say  that  allowance  must  be  made  for  political 
interference  in  certain  situations,    ^he  teacher  must  in- 
variably have  had  experience  in  the  activity  he  attempts 
to  teach.    The  good  performer  is  not  necessarily  a  good 
teacher,  but  the  teacher  should  always  be  able  to  do  what 
he  attempts  to  teach.    There  may  be  exceptions  to  this 
statement,  of  course.    The  custom,  however,  of  turning 
over  the  coaching  of  the  boys'  football  team  to  the  science 
teacher  or  the  girls'  basketball  team  to  the  language 
teacher  because  these  teachers  played  these  games  at  one 
time  is  to  be  condemned.  iThe  teacher  of  physical  educa- 
tion should  be  trained,  should  know  the  problems,  and 
should  be  responsible  for  them.- 

3.  Personality.    It  has  often  been  said  that  teachers 
are  born,   not  made.     Teaching  requires  imagination, 
facility  in  seeing  relationships,  and  qualities  of  leadership 
that  appear  inborn.  vJThe  well  administered  school  of 
physical  education  does  succeed  in  training  teachers  with 
attractive  personal  equipment  by  its  emphasis  on  elements 
that  bring  out  and  enforce  personality.    These  elements 
should  be  considered: 

^  a.     Ideals.    The  point  of  view  of  the  teacher  is 
important.     What  are  his  ideals?     Does  he  have 


THE  TEACHER,  SUPERVISOR,  OR  DIRECTOR         97 

vision  of  a  training  that  seeks  to  help  in  moulding 
better  men  and  women  or  does  he  aim  at  physical 
values  only?  Has  the  teacher  an  attitude  of  service 
in  an  ideal  field  for  the  development  of  character  or 
are  the  usual  standards  of  the  money  mart  controlling? 
The  board  of  education  or  board  of  trustees  concerned 
with  choosing  a  teacher  should  be  interested  in  the 
kind  of  ideals  fostered  by  the  institution  that  served 
as  alma  mater  of  the  graduate  in  question.  The 
teacher  of  physical  education  more  than  the  teachers 
of  other  subjects  has  a  significant  opportunity  because 
he  is  concerned  with  activities  in  which  the  basal 
elements,  feeling  and  will,  are  so  much  a  part  of  his 
work  and  also  so  much  a  part  of  human  social  be- 
havior. Loyalty,  willingness  to  cooperate  with  others, 
open-mindedness — these  are  essential  characteristics 
as  expressive  of  high  ideals  for  teaching  (3). 
^Jb.  Enthusiasm.  The  teacher  of  physical  educa- 
tion must  be  enthusiastic  over  the  opportunities  and 
possibilities  of  the  work.  He  must  believe  in  it  and 
have  convictions  regarding  its  worth-whileness  that 
will  carry  over  into  action. 

c.  Force.     In  this  field,  as  in  other  fields,  force  to 
carry  out  a  program  is  highly  desirable.    There  must 
be  adaptability  and  a  willingness  to  cooperate  and 
work  with  others,  but  perhaps  equally  important  is 
force  of  character  that  sees  the  goal  and  goes  toward 
it.    There  must  be  something  of  the  spirit  that  Percy 
Haughton  brought  to  the  Harvard  elevens — a  spirit 
that  saw  in  every  scrimmage  the  possibility  of  the 
winning  touchdown. 

d.  Dress.    The  street  dress  is  important.    Perti- 
nent questions  are  suggested.    What  does  the  dress 
stand  for?    Does  it  portray  earnestness,  enthusiasm, 
carefulness,  alertness?    "The  apparel  oft  proclaims 


98  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

the  man"  and  the  meaning  of  dress  should  not  be  lost 
in  the  consideration  of  the  elements  of  personality. 
The  gymnasium  costume  is  equally  important.  The 
wearing  of  rings,  bracelets,  ear  rings,  necklaces, 
elaborate  coiffures,  unusual  and  unwarranted  color 
combinations  on  the  part  of  women  teachers  is  to  be 
condemned.  The  teacher  of  physical  education  must 
be  careful  not  to  appear  as  a  stage  beauty  or  as  the 
main  attraction  at  a  side  show.  For  the  woman 
teacher  this  matter  of  dress  is  important  because  of 
her  probable  standing  with  reference  to  the  other 
teachers  in  the  school,  because  of  certain  accepted  and 
generally  respected  customs,  and  because  of  her  in- 
fluence on  the  pupils  (4). 

e.  Bearing.  The  posture  of  the  teacher  is  ex- 
tremely important  because  good  posture  is  so  highly 
valued  in  school  children  and  because  example  is  very 
contagious.  The  bearing  of  the  physical  education 
teacher  may  be  valuable  in  what  it  says.  It  is  worth 
remembering  that  the  body  speaks,  that  we  contin- 
ually judge  people's  characters  by  the  way  they  walk, 
hold  the  head,  and  stand.  The  indirect  values  flowing 
out  of  a  position  of  poise  and  body  adjustment  are  so 
real  that  for  the  moral  sanitation  of  the  spirit,  one 
should  fight  against  maladjustments  as  one  would 
fight  against  the  plague. 

An  essential  point  of  view. — In  as  much  as  the  work  of 
physical  education  is  directed  in  the  minds  of  many  people 
at  achieving  health,  it  is  important  that  the  teacher  or 
supervisor  should  not  neglect  really  important  signs  of 
health  and  vitality  in  the  persons  of  the  children  and  in 
the  atmosphere  and  program  of  the  whole  school. 

A  narrow  minded  assumption  that  the  gymnastic  work 
will  bring  health  is  absolutely  fatal  to  progress  in  this  field. 
The  teacher  or  supervisor  needs  to  be  alive  to  all  the  factors 


THE  TEACHER,  SUPERVISOR,  OR  DIRECTOR         99 

entering  into  and  modifying  the  health  status  of  the  school 
child.  Only  in  so  far  as  the  teacher  has  this  appreciation  is 
there  any  hope  for  progress;  otherwise  she  starts  with  an 
unwarranted  assumption  that  the  exercises  themselves 
will  give  health,  strength,  and  vigor. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  WILLIAMS,  JESSE  FEIRING.     "Conservation  of  the  Nation's 

Most  Valuable  Resources."    Educational  Review,  November, 
1918,  Vol.  56,  No.  4. 

2.  McANDREW,  W.    "How  to  Choose  a  Public  School  Teacher." 

World's  Work,  February,  1911. 

3.  CROSLEY,  K.  K.    "The  Teacher  Herself."    Educational  Re- 

view, November,  1914,  pp.  375-380. 
DINMAN,  J.  B.    "The  Ideal  as  an  Incentive."    Education, 

November,  1912,  pp.  573-577. 
KAHN,  J.    "  Why  Teachers  Fail."    Education,  December,  1912, 

pp.  103-109. 

4.  ELAINE,  EMMONS.    "Opportunity  of  the  Teacher."    Proceed- 

ings of  the  National  Education  Association,  1911,  pp.  103-115. 

CAMPBELL,  W.  H.  "Personal  Elements  in  our  Educational 
Problems."  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 1913,  pp.  45-49. 

JONES,  H.  B.  "Personal  Influence  of  the  Teacher."  Educa- 
tion, April,  1913,  pp.  499-502. 

Exceedingly  strong  articles  dealing  with  the  influence  of  the 
teacher. 


CHAPTER  SIX 

SUPERVISING 

AND 
JUDGING  THE  WORK  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Until  definite  standard  scales  are  available  for  measure- 
ment of  the  progress  of  students  in  motor  skill  and  in 
response  to  situations  having  moral  and  social  values,  the 
work  of  physical  education  must  be  judged  by  the  best 
standards  in  use  to-day.  The  school  principal,  college 
president,  or  director  of  physical  education  will  often 
want  to  know  what  are  the  important  points  in  a  good 
gymnastic  lesson  or  in  a  good  athletic  organization,  and 
because  the  department  of  physical  education  is  often 
responsible  for  certain  aspects  of  the  health  of  children  it 
would  seem  important  to  suggest  points  for  consideration 
in  this  connection  also. 

Observation  of  the  children  should  be  directed  in  the 
first  place  to  conditions  that  in  modern  and  progressive 
schools  are  cared  for  by  medical  inspection.  Physical 
education  even  when  only  concerned  with  the  direction  of 
motor  activities  should  encompass  in  its  observation  and 
appreciation  all  the  factors  related  to  health.  It  is  not 
enough  to  be  familiar  only  with  the  hygiene  of  exercise; 
the  health  condition  of  the  school  child  must  be  appre- 
ciated in  all  its  aspects.  When  the  school  is  without  med- 
ical supervision,  the  observer  should  bear  definite  questions 
in  mind  and  seek  to  determine  answers.  General  observa- 
tion is  often  worthless;  definite,  detailed  looking  for  par- 

100 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK          jqi 

ticular  things  should  give  information  of  value.     The 
following  questions  should  be  kept  in  mind: 

Health  observation. 

1 .  Did  you  notice  in  your  observation  any  children 
whose  eyesight  and  hearing  were  defective?    What 
signs  were  there? 

2.  Did  any  of  the  children  have  colds,  sore  throat, 
cough?    Did  any  of  them  seem  tired,  sleepy?    What 
indications  of  these  conditions? 

3.  How  many  of  the  children  seemed  nervous? 
What  indications? 

4.  Did  any  of  the  children  show  malnutrition? 
What  signs? 

5.  Were  there   any   with  evident  physical   de- 
formities?    Were  such  children  given  special  con- 
sideration?   In  what  ways? 

6.  Did  you  notice  any  conditions  which  had  been 
neglected  and  which  might  be  improved  by  the  appli- 
cation of  simple  hygienic  principles?    Any  conditions 
which  have  been  provided  for  by  school,  city,  or  state? 

Physical  education  in  many  schools  aims  for  health  ends.. 
Certainly  it  has,  in  all  schools,  possibilities  that  may  be 
turned  into  health  resources.  Frequently,  however,  the 
opportunity  of  achieving  any  health  results  is  lost  due  to 
the  lack  of  sanitary  provision  in  the  most  simple  and 
elemental  things. 

It  is  important  to  look  for  the  significant  points  in 
school  sanitation.  The  following  questions  would  seem 
suggestive. 

School  sanitation  (1). 

1.  How  was  the  room  in  which  you  observed 
heated?    How  ventilated? 

2.  What  is  your  standard  in  judging  the  proper 
temperature  of  a  schoolroom? 


102  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

3.  Did  you  notice  any  difference  between  the 
temperature   of   the    classroom    and    that    of    the 
gymnasium? 

4.  What   elements   or   conditions   in   the   room 
directly  related  to  the  supply  of  pure  air?    If  condi- 
tions were  not  good,  was  the  ventilating  system  at 
fault? 

5.  What  indications  did  you  find  as  you  studied 
the  room,  the  walls,  ceilings,  casings,  molding,  floors, 
desks,  etc.,  that  the  persons  who  built  and  planned 
the  room  had  in  mind  the  fact  that  "the  schoolroom 
should  be  constructed  so  that  it  will  afford  the  least 
possible  harbor  for  germs  and  it  should  permit  easy 
and  perfect  cleaning"?* 

6.  As  you  looked  about  the  building  did  you  see 
anything  which  gave  you  any  clue  as  to  the  methods 
of  cleaning  followed  in  the  building? 

7.  What  can  you  say  of  the  general  location  of  the 
building? 

8.  Are  the  halls,  closets,  etc.,  well  lighted,  heated, 
ventilated? 

9.  Estimate  the  size  of  the  room  and  tell  relatively 
whether  or  not  the  proper  amount  of  air  and  space  is 
provided  for  each  child. 

The  correct  observation  of  a  gymnastic  lesson  involves 
an  appreciation  of  method  and  material.  For  the  view 
point  presented  in  the  following  questions,  one  is  referred 
to  the  preceding  chapters.  This  point  of  view  demands 
that  physical  education  seek  to  develop  its  materials  out 
of  the  instincts  and  desires  of  children  and  select  its 
material  so  far  as  possible  from  the  field  that  will  give 
functioning  types.  The  observer  may  therefore  consider 
the  following: 

*  Wood,  T.  D.     '  'Health  and  Education."     Part  I :  p.  43.     Ninth  Year  Book.     National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  103 

Physical  education. 

1.  What  was  the  general  outline  of  the  lesson 
observed? 

2.  What  did  you  consider  the  teacher's  aim  in 
giving  that  particular  lesson? 

3.  Did  you  note  any  ways  in  which  the  lesson 
might  have  been  the  outgrowth  of  other  class  or 
playground  interests? 

4.  Was  the  matter  of  discipline  prominent? 

5.  Might  the  lesson  have  been  given  without 
music?    With  music?    Suggest  changes. 

6.  Might  this  lesson  have  been  given  to  children 
two  years   older   or  younger   than  the   ones   you 
observed?     Suggest  necessary  changes  and  adjust- 
ments. 

7.  Was  a  dance  taught?     How  was  the  dance 
presented?     Where  was   the  emphasis  placed,   on 
technique  or  spirit? 

8.  Did  they  play  a  game?    Who  chose  it?    Why? 

9.  Did  they  play  the  game  or  play  the  rules? 
(What  is  the  difference?) 

10.  Did  the  game  have  intellectual  or  moral  les- 
sons?   Did  the  teacher  use  them? 

11.  Were  there  gymnastics  in  the  lesson? 

12.  Observe  the  movements  used.     Were  they 
artificial  or  natural?    Were  they  used  properly? 

13.  Did  the  teacher  use  commands  or  imitation? 

14.  Did  the  teacher,  if  using  commands,  con- 
vey by  the  use  of  her  voice  the  manner  of  action 
desired? 

15.  Was  the  lesson  planned  or  was  it  just  some 
exercises  performed  carelessly  with  no  attempt  at 
form? 

16.  Was  there  any  marching?    Was  it  adapted  to 
the  development  of  the  child? 


'104  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

17.  Did  the  children  really  march?     Note  pos- 
tures.  Was  there  slouching  and  dragging  in  the  class? 

18.  Did  the  teacher  speak  as  if  she  believed  what 
she  said?    Did  she  show  conviction?    Was  she  en- 
thusiastic, vital? 

19.  Were  the  children  interested  and  happy? 

20.  Were  the  children   sorry  when   the  period 
closed? 

The  questions  on  health,  sanitation,  and  physical  educa- 
tion relate  to  an  observation  that  seeks  to  sharpen  the 
appreciation  by  the  teacher  or  administrator  of  the  health 
factors  in  school  life  on  the  one  hand  and  to  determine  on 
the  other,  how  far  the  program  is  adjusted  to  meet  the 
problems  presented.  More  definitely,  the  work  of  physical 
education  in  its  motor  part  is  to  be  judged  by  the  needs  of 
the  situation.  The  problems  to  be  considered  may  be  very 
large  classes,  inadequate  play  space  and  equipment,  short 
periods,  and  other  evidences  of  school  building  pathology. 
However,  factors  such  as  these  must  be  considered: 

Points  in  a  good  gymnastic  lesson. — The  teacher  should 
be  observed  for  points  on  costume,  appearance,  neatness, 
posture,  and  facial  expression.  The  lesson  itself  should 
present  answers  to  certain  definite  questions  I 

1.  The  parts  of  the  lesson  should  be  purposive. 
If  the  problem  is  to  get  the  class  on  the  floor  ready 
to  begin  the  lesson,  the  points  of  order,  quickness,  and 
ease  should  be  expected. 

2.  The  class  should  be  dressed  to  do  the  kind  of 
work  given.    If  gymnastic  costume  is  not  available 
the  work  needs  careful  selection.    An  illustration  of 
unfitness  in  this  regard  is  that  of  the  male  high  school 
instructor  teaching  girls  dressed  for  the  street  to 
swing  on  rings. 

3.  The  lesson  should  be  taught  with  reference  to 
the  best  use  of  the  available  space  and  equipment. 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  105 

It  is  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  military  marching 
with  a  large  class  in  a  small  room. 

4.  If  suited  to  the  existing  conditions,  the  lesson 
should  provide  physical  activity  sufficiently  vigorous 
to  induce  increased  heart  and  respiratory  action. 
The  physiological    effects  will  not  be  secured  by 
swinging  Indian  clubs,  or  by  games  in  which  only  one 
runs  and  the  rest  of  the  class  stand  still,  or  by 
dramatic  work  in  which  one  or  two  act  and  the  rest 
look  on. 

5.  Good  posture  should  be  maintained  throughout. 
Slouching  can  never  be  accepted  as  satisfactory.    If 
marching  is  used  it  should  be  well  done. 

6.  Is  the  class  taught  correct  form  in  types  of 
activity  in  which  "  correctness "  is  known  and  ac- 
cepted?   Running,  for  example,  illustrates  the  point. 
If  running  is  taught,  or  used,  the  lesson  is  to  be 
criticized  if  correct  form  is  not  considered. 

7.  The  lesson  should  not  contain  strange  and 
unusual  movements  that  are  used  for  "variety." 
The  exercise  taught  should  have  a  purpose. 

8.  The  emphasis  throughout  should  be  "upward " 
and  not  "downward."    Unity  of  response  if  sought 
should  be  attained  by  means  other  than  stamping 
with  the  feet.     "Jarring  of  the  body  should  be  re- 
duced to  a  minimum."* 

9.  The  class  should  not  be  held  long  in  strained 
positions.    That  physical  training  is  most  scientific 
that  does  not  produce  soreness.    An  exercise  to  be 
valuable  need  not  be  painful,  nor  cause  discomfort. 

10.  Breathing  exercises  should  not  be  used  in  the 
lesson.     The  room  or  gymnasium  dust  has  been 
stirred  up  by  the  activity  and  it  is  decidedly  unhy- 

*Wood,  T.  D.     "Health  and  Education."   Part  I,  p.  91.     Ninth  Year  Book.    National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 


106  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

gienic  to  ask  for  deep  respirations  at  this  time. 
Furthermore,  if  the  activity  has  been  sufficiently 
vigorous,  respirations  deep  and  fast  enough  to  satisfy 
the  respiratory  need  will  go  on  automatically  and  if 
the  activity  has  been  light  or  moderate  the  respiratory 
center  will  set  the  proper  respiratory  rate  that  the 
body  needs  at  that  time.  Respiratory  exercises  as 
usually  taught  are  unscientific,  unhygienic,  and  un- 
wise.* They  should  not  be  used. 

11.  If  the  class  is  to  stay  in  the  schoolroom  or 
return  from  the  gymnasium  for  class  work,  quieting 
exercises  of  a  slow-leg  type  should  end  the  lesson. 

12.  The  more  the  material  of  the  lesson  correlates 
with  the  play  life  of  the  pupil  or  functions  directly  in 
school  or  life,  the  more  valuable  it  may  be  considered. 
Movements  that  have  no  mental  content  whatsoever 
are  of  less  value. 

Points  in  a  good  athletic  organization. — There  are  va- 
rious types  of  organizations.  A  certain  school  on  Long 
Island,  New  York,  induces  professional  athletes  to  attend 
in  order  to  "  turn  out "  a  good  football  team.  The  mass  of 
the  students  are  neglected.  The  Andover  plan  as  de- 
scribed elsewhere  (2)  presents  a  different  type.  A  judg- 
ment of  an  athletic  organization  would  be  based  upon  the 
answers  secured  from  questions  of  the  following  kind : 

1.  What  percentage  of  the  school  does  the  athletic 
organization  reach?    Reilly**  sets  80  per  cent  as  the 
minimum  to  be  allowed.    An  athletic  organization  is 
not  efficient  until  it  engages  every  pupil  in  its  activ- 
ities.   Athletics  for  all  is  the  test  to  apply. 

2.  A  minimum  amount  of  time  should  be  three 
hours  a  week.   Some  individuals  give  more.    Certainly 
an  hour  three  times  a  week  should  be  minimum  for 


*  NOTE. — For  a  full  discussion  of  breathing  exercises  see  Williams,  Jesse  Feiring.    Personal 

ygiene  Applied.    W.  B.  Saunders  Company,  1922. 

**  Reilly,  Frederick.     New  Rational  Athletics.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  New  York. 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  107 

all.  This  minimum  time  would  allow  one  to  achieve 
results  in  one  game  that  would  get  the  participant 
above  the  novice  class.  One  of  the  purposes  of  ath- 
letics is  to  learn  to  play  a  game  well  enough  to  enjoy  it. 
3.  The  results  flowing  out  of  the  athletic  organiza- 
tion should  be: 

a.  Game  education.    Skill  and  coordination  that 
represent  motor  education.      This,  as  Saleeby   (3) 
suggests,  is  important. 

b.  Biologic  strength.    This  will  come  because  of 
the  big  muscle  activities  present  in  all  athletic  games. 
Whether  this  result  will  occur   depends  upon  the 
emphasis    placed    upon    specialization.       Certainly 
college  athletics  at  times  leave  the  athlete  a  physi- 
cal  wreck.     The  final  test  to  be  applied  to  the 
work  is  whether  in  the  main  it  is  conducive  to  the 
improvement  of  the  biologic  strength  of  the  great 
majority  of  the   students.     If  the  few  athletes  of 
the  school  are  highly  trained  and  the  mass  of  stu- 
dents constitute  merely  the  entourage  of  a  victori- 
ous team,  then  certainly  the  organization  ranks  low. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  occasional  illustration  of  over- 
specialization,  or  sudden  death  from  athletics  does 
not  mean  that  the  entire  scheme  is  bad.     It  may 
suggest  the  need  for  better  supervision,  more  medical 
examination  and  less  physical  examination,  or  any- 
thing but  complete  condemnation  of  athletics.    Bio- 
logic strength  is  so  important  an  element  in  indi- 
vidual as  well  as  national  life  that  anything  con- 
tributing to  this  value  should  have  its  day  in  court 
and  not  be  judged  too  quickly.    In  any  case,  it  is  of 
little  importance  to  pass  judgment;   it  is  far  more 
important  to  understand  the  values,  the  dangers, 
the  good  points,   the  weaknesses,   and  shape  the 
administrative  action  to  its  proper  end. 


108  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

c.     Social  values.    The  pursuit  of  athletics  should 

result  in  a  wholesome  training  of  the  feeling  and  will. 

Cooperation,    self-sacrifice,    self-control,    fair    play, 

hard  play,  and  team  play  should  come  and,  if  well 

fixed,  they  will  give  favorable  attitudes  on  questions 

arising  in  school  or  after  school  days.    Whether  or 

not  such  traditions  and  attitudes  develop  depends 

largely  upon  the  quality  of  the  instructing  staff. 

Points  in  a  good  dancing  lesson. — Some  of  the  points  of 

administration  indicated  in  points  on  a  good  gymnastic 

lesson  would  apply  here.    It  remains  to  suggest  values 

of  intrinsic  relationship   to   the  dance,   referred  to   at 

length  elsewhere.* 

1.  The  dancing  should  not  develop  self -conscious- 
ness.    The  dancer  should  express  the  spirit  of  the 
dance  and  not  do  acrobatic  technique. 

2.  So-called  "aesthetic"  dancing  is  less  valuable 
than  folk,  national,  or  natural  dancing.    The  applica- 
tion of  the  dance  in  a  festival  or  dramatic  play  is  a 
good  test  of  its  functional  value. 

3.  In  ensemble  dancing  the  general  effect  should 
be  characterized  by  harmony,  rhythm,  and  expression 
without   expecting   uniformity   in    the   manner    of 
expression. 

4.  The  James-Lange  theory  of  the  emotions  sets 
a   standard   for   dancing   that   should   be   secured. 
Motion   and   emotion   occur   simultaneously.     The 
spirit  of  the  dance  is  very  inportant.     The  forms 
selected  for  expression  should  be  chosen  carefully  (4). 

5.  The  music  should  be  of  a  type  that  would 
cultivate  good  taste  in  musical  composition.     The 
cheap,  tawdry,  musical  comedy  type  should  not  be 
used. 

*  wniiama,  Jesse  Feiring.     "The  Education  of  the  Emotions  Through  Physical  Educa- 
ion."     Teachers  College  Record.     May,  1920. 


tion 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  109 

6.  Forms  of  social  dancing  should  be  expres- 
sive of  good  taste,  appreciation  of  accepted 
customs  regarding  love-making,  and  without  the 
suggestive  positions  and  movements  of  romantic 
art.  Social  dancing  is  often  erotic  because  it  is 
essentially  related  to  love-making  between  the  sexes. 
It  needs  good  standards.  These  standards  will 
be  good  if  they  protect  the  young  from  that 
liberty  between  the  sexes  that  so  often  means 
license,  if  they  lessen  close  body  contact  and 
other  forms  of  eroticism,  and  if  they  are  sus- 
ceptible to  interpretation  and  afford  a  range  for 
the  imitativeness  that  is  so  closely  interwoven 
with  rhythmic  movement.  If  they  do  this,  then 
physical  and  mental  relaxation,  aesthetic  expres- 
sion not  aiming  at  material  goals,  and  wholesome 
social  relations  between  the  sexes  may  readily 
result  (5). 

Points  in  a  good  departmental  organization. — A  well- 
rounded  department  will  not  deal  in  specialties,  will  not 
ride  hobbies,  and  will  not  be  carried  away  by  new  "sys- 
tems'7 suddenly  brought  forward.  There  will  be  pro- 
vided in  such  an  organization  the  following: 

1.  Adequate  facilities  for  corrective  gymnastics. 

2.  Opportunity  for  and  leadership  in  games  best 
suited  to  the  groups  concerned. 

3.  Dancing,    especially    of    the    folk,    national, 
gymnastic,  athletic,  and  natural  types. 

4.  Dramatics,  especially  in  the  festival  and  pag- 
eant form  using  pantomime  and  the  arts  of  motor 
expression  freely. 

5.  Athletics  of  the  intramural  and  interschool 
type  in  extensive  fashion. 

6.  Gymnastics  modified  and  offered  in  response 
to  the  need  that  may  exist  to  supply  activity  of  a 


110  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

motor  kind  when  the  above  provisions  are  not  avail- 
able or  adequate. 

7.  Swimming  and  life-saving. 

8.  Recreational  clubs  enlisting  large  numbers  in 
extra-curricular  activities. 

9.  Correlation   with   other    motor    activities   in 
which  the  boy  or  girl  may  be  interested,  such  as 
school  gardens,  Boy  and  Girl  Scouts,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  and  other  organizations. 

10.  Accurate  and  complete  data  on  the  physical 
condition  and  development  of  the  children.    Studies 
should  be  made  to  determine  the  relative  value 
of  different   programs  and  procedures.     To  effect 
these    things    it    is    important   to   provide  means, 
both   in  personnel  and  in  funds.     No  well  organ- 
ized department  should  be  without  research  on  its 
problems  of   training   and   caring   for   the   human 
body. 

Need  for  scoring  standards. — There  is  a  real  need  for 
approved  scoring  standards  by  which  a  lesson  in  physical 
education  may  be  measured  in  terms  of  educational 
values  for  the  child  and  in  terms  of  the  effectiveness  of 
teaching  method.  Nothing  of  this  kind  is  at  present 
available.  The  work  in  the  grades  is  usually  conducted 
by  the  classroom  teacher  who  has  had  little  or  no  training 
and  frequently  shows  little  interest  in  the  work.  A 
definite  scoring  method  would  help  her  to  improve  her 
instruction.  As  a  suggestion  of  the  need  for  scoring 
methods  and  a  possible  direction  that  such  procedure 
should  take,  the  author  has  directed  Mr.  George  Stubbs* 
in  the  preparation  of  the  following  outline.  It  is  very 
incomplete  but  is  offered  here  for  stimulation  to  effort 
in  this  direction. 

*NOTB.— This  work  by  Mr.  Stubbs  is  part  of  a  physical  education  praoticum  at  Teachers 
College. 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  111 

SOME  STANDARDS  TO  BE  USED  BY  THE  SUPERVISOR  IN  JUDGING  THE 
!  QUALITY  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  FIRST  FOUR 
GRADES  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 

Motivating 

1.  The  activities  adaptable  for  free  play  by  the  children  without 

supervision  were :  Throwing Climbing Hanging 

Running Swinging .    Score  each  10.    Total  score..     60 

2.  The  progression  had  the  following  instinctive  basis: 
Dramatizing .  .  yes no Jumping  and 

Running yes no leaping yes no 

Climbing yes no Catching  and 

throwing. . . .  yes no 

Score  each  10.    Total  score..     50 

3.  The  pupils  chose  the  activity  to  be  used  in  the  following 

instances :  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

9 10 Score  each  5.    Total  score    50 

4.  The  teacher  helped  focus  interest  and  attention  by: 

a    playing  with  the  children yes no score  (a)  40 

b    promise  of  future  rewards yes no score  (6)  10 

Total  score    50 

5.  The  teacher  suggested  life  relationships  by: 
a    introducing  materials  requiring 

outside  preparation yes no score  (a)  30 

b    explanation yes no score  (6)  10 

Total  score    40 

Total  on  motivating  250 
Planning 

1.  The  physical  training  activities  required  pupil  preparation 

outside  the  classroom  by: 

a    preparation  in  other  classes. . .  .yes no score  (a)  30 

6    observing  animals  and  people .  .  yes no score  (6)  30 

c    asking  questions  of  people yes no score  (c)  30 

d    group  conference yes no score  (d)  30 

e    reading yes no score  (e)  30 

Total  score  150 

2.  While  the  class  was  planning  an  activity  of  their  own  the 

teacher  led  the  group  to: 
a    decide  part  each  child  should 

play yes no score  (a)  25 

b    things  to  be  included yes no score  (b)  25 

c     organization  of  steps yes no score  (c)  25 

d    where  to  go  for  help yes no score  (d)  25 

Total  score  100 

Total  on  planning  250 


112  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Executing 

1.  The  fundamental  activities  engaged  in  were: 

a    dramatic  and  singing  games yes no score  (a)  25 

b    dances yes no score  (6)  25 

c     games yes no score  (c)  25 

d    formal  exercises yes no score  (d)    5 

Total  score    80 

2.  In  teaching  a  motor  activity  the  teacher: 

a    dwelt  on  positive  points yes no score  (a)  25 

b    used  suggestion  and  imitation,  .yes no score  (b)  10 

c     used  explanation yes no score  (c)  10 

Total  score    45 

3.  In  conducting  the  lesson  the  teacher: 
a    secured  participation  by  the  en- 
tire class yes no score  (a)  75 

b  used  activities  giving  physiolog- 
ical values yes no score  (6)  25 

c  led  the  class  to  be  ready  for  dis- 
missal  yes no score  (c)  25 

Total  score  125 

Total  on  executing  250 
Judging  and  Testing 

1.  The  teacner  encouraged  pupil  judgments  by: 
a    asking    group    and    individual 

judgments  on  worth  of  partici- 
pation   ;••;•.•  • yes no score  (a)  25 

b     questioning  group  and  individuals 

how  best  to  do  certain  things. yes no score  (6)  25 

Total  score    50 

2.  The  teacher  tried  to  raise  the  children's  standards  of  action  by : 

a    praising  good  participation yes no score  (a)  10 

b    calling  attention  to  poor  partici- 
pation   yes no score  (b)    5 

c  noticing  good  and  poor  sports- 
manship   yes no score  (c)  10 

d  carrying  out  threats  of  disci- 
pline   yes no score  (d)  5 

e  exhibiting  good  sportsmanship 
herself  when  playing  with  the 
children yes no score  (e)  30 

/    insisting  on  attention  to  business 

in  hand yes no score  (/)  20 

g    personal  influence  in  her  own 

dress yes no— — score  (g)  20 

Total  score  100 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  113 

3.     The  children's  standards  of  play  were  illustrated  as  a  class  by: 

a    being  quiet  while  teacher  talks . .  yes no score  (a)  25 

6    respecting  decision  of  umpire. .  .yes no score  (6)  25 

c     keeping  rules  of  the  game  on  en- 
tering and  leaving  the  room,  .yes no score  (c)  25 

d    prompt  attention  to  teacher's 

whistle  or  other  signal yes no score  (d)  25 

Total  score  100 

Total  judging  and  testing  250 
Total  possible  score  on  all  four  procedures    1000 

The  values  to  the  different  elements  in  the  standards 
proposed  have  been  assigned  arbitrarily.  What  is  needed 
now  is  a  rating  based  upon  the  " judgments  of  worth" 
by  hundreds  of  people  in  physical  education.  The  author 
would  like  to  receive  criticisms  of  the  standards  proposed, 
and  a  rating  of  the  different  events  to  total  1000  points. 
With  a  standard  rating  card  it  would  be  possible  to 
mark  with  some  fairness  and  accuracy  the  work  of  a 
teacher  of  physical  education.  Supervision  could  be 
fairly  exact.  Probably  any  rating  less  than  500  points 
would  be  unsatisfactory;  between  600  and  700  would  be 
fair;  700-800  would  be  good;  800-900  very  good  and 
900-1000  excellent. 

Present  procedure  in  supervision. — The  problem  has 
been  to  help  the  teacher  and  to  this  end  two  methods 
have  been  used. 

1.  Conference  and  instruction.  The  plan  usually 
followed  is  to  arrange  for  regular  (usually  monthly) 
meetings  at  which  the  material  and  methods  of 
instruction  are  taught  to  the  group.  It  would  always 
be  helpful  to  give  them  definite,  detailed,  written 
instructions  in  features  of  the  work  'to  be  emphasized 
in  the  future  or  hi  which  their  instruction  in  the  past 
had  been  unsatisfactory.  The  supervisor  will  be 
exceedingly  wary  of  destructive  criticism  and  at 
all  times  will  seek  to  help  the  teachers  to  secure  more 


114  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

exact  plans,  to  evolve  clearer  conceptions  of  pro- 
cedures, and  to  arouse  more  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
2.  Suggestion  blanks.  A  second  method  of  super- 
vision is  used  at  the  time  of  instruction.  At  this 
time,  the  supervisor  seeks  to  give  expert,  definite 
advice  on  the  lesson  taught.  The  exigencies  of  the 
occasion  usually  prevent  any  protracted  discussion 
following  the  lesson  because  of  the  necessities  of  the 
teacher's  work  and  the  other  demands  on  the  super- 
visor. The  following  form  to  be  left  with  the  teacher 
is  deficient  in  many  essential  points,  but  it  does  indi- 
cate a  method  that  gives  definite  concrete  suggestions : 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

SUGGESTION  BLANK  FOR  TEACHERS 

(The  check  marks  indicate  the  parts  of  the  lesson  in  which  there 
should  be  improvement.) 

SCHOOL TEACHER 

DATE  . .  . .  GRADE  . .  . .  SUPERVISOR  . . 


MARCHING 
Posture 
Rhythm 
Halting 
Evolutions 

PRESENTATION  OF  GYMNASTICS 

Use  of  voice 
1 — More  force 
2 — More  persuasion 
3 — More  variety  in  intonation 

Commands  given  too  rapidly  (or)  slowly 

Commands  not  clear 

Too  much  explanation 

DANCE  INSTRUCTION 
Presentation 

Place  emphasis  more  on  spirit 
Place  emphasis  more  on  technique 
Give  clearer  setting  for  the  dance 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  115 

GAME  INSTRUCTION 
Presentation 

Interpretation  of  rules 

Enforcement  of  rules 

Class  response 

Spirit 

Spontaneity 

Sportsmanship 

CORRECTION  OF  FAULTS 
VENTILATION  OF  THE  ROOM 

A  record  of  the  teacher  should  be  kept  and  if  she  has 
difficulty  with  the  same  points  again  leave  with  her 
printed  material  and  references  to  articles  dealing  with 
the  matter  criticized.  Some  teachers  may  need  to  read 
articles  on  sportsmanship.  (See  references  at  end  of 
Chapter  VIII.) 

The  following  suggestions  to  supervisors  is  used  by  the 
Department  of  Physical  Training,  New  York  City  Public 
Schools: 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 
OFFICE  OF 

THE  CITY  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS 

500  PARK  AVENUE 


General Has  the  teacher  a  syllabus? 

Is  she  giving  the  lesson  for  the  week? 

Does  she  know  exercises? 

Ventilation Do  monitors  open  windows? 

Temperature .65°  to  68°  F. 

Standing  up  and  taking 

Distance Alertness 

Posture Attention  to  posture  at  beginning  of  lesson 

Head— Chest— Weight 


116  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Stretching Cues  and  urging  for  posture 

Is  good  posture  obtained? 

Individual  correction 
Breathing Face  windows 

Urging  by  cues 

Are  lungs  filled?    Chest  lifted? 

Is  posture  improved? 
Marching Do  pupils  know  what  to  do? 

Accuracy,  military  alertness,  brisk  time 
Facing:  Lower  Grades Drill  on  direction 

Do  the  children  know  right  from  left? 
Other  Grades Alertness,  accuracy 

Is  facing  done  sharply  and  by  all  in  time? 

Is  good  posture  maintained? 
Formal  Exercises Does  teacher  know  exercise? 

Do  pupils  know  exercise? 

Are  response  commands  maintained  with 
proper  pause? 

Do  they  become  rhythmical? 

Does  class  go  ahead  of  teacher? 

Is  there  speed  and  accuracy? 

Are  terminal  positions  emphasized? 

Is  good  posture  obtained?  To  fullest 
extent? 

Are  descriptive  urging  commands  (cues) 
used? 

Are  positions  which  will  correct  poor  posture 
emphasized? 

Does  teacher  know  the  purpose  of  emphasiz- 
ing these  positions? 

Are  individuals  corrected? 

Do  pupils  gain  in  alertness?  In  knowledge 
of  exercise? 

Whole  Lessons Is  there  a  tone  of  pleasure  to  the  lesson,  and 

a  pride  in  good  performance? 

Has  there  been  sufficient  "exercise"? 

Has  a  game  been  used? 

Does  teacher  understand  corrective,  hygienic, 
and  educational  results  of  exercise,  and 
how  they  should  be  obtained? 
Classroom  Games Are  they  used  in  every  lesson? 

Do  all  children  know  them? 

Do  teachers  get  results  from  games,  i.e., 

"exercise,"  pleasure,  and  relaxation  (hygi- 
enic). Sense  training,  alertness,  motor 
training  (educational)? 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  117 

Two-minute  Drill Is  it  given  twice  in  A.M.,  once  in  P.M.,  or 

between  every  two  periods  (unless  one  of 
these  is  devoted  to  physical  training)? 
Does  teacher  know  what  it  is  for?     (Relief 

from  sitting,  corrective,  hygienic.) 
Does  each  exercise  produce  its  appropriate 
result? 

Marking Are  all  pupils  marked  on  physical  training? 

Are  all  pupils  working  for  improvement? 


JESSIE  H.  BANCROFT, 

JOSEPHINE  BEIDERHASE,        A.  K.  ALDINGER,  M.  D. 
ABNER  P.  WAY,  Director  of  Physical  Training. 

Assistant  Directors  of  Physical  Training. 


The  above  contains  forty-seven  points  to  be  noted. 

A  card  of  suggestions  recommended  by  the  Director* 
of  Physical  Training  in  the  Newark  (N.  J.)  Public  Schools 
offers  forty-six  points  to  which  the  supervisor  shall  give 
attention.  Both  cards  would  seem  to  be  exhaustive  and 
yet  they  do  not  provide  for  observation  of  the  essential 
physical,  mental,  social,  and  moral  values  in  physical 
education  activities.  It  would  appear  that  physical 
education  should  direct  its  supervision  at  the  larger  and 
more  significant  values.  Certainly  such  should  not  be 
omitted.  To  notice  only  the  quality  of  technical  exercises 
is  to  make  supervision  less  useful  and  helpful  than  it 
might  otherwise  be.  It  is  important  to  note,  however, 
that  the  supervision  forms  referred  to  are  used  in  cities 
where  practically  all  the  instruction  in  physical  education 
is  given  by  grade  teachers.  It  is  to  be  recognized  that  they 
are  not  as  capable  in  this  field  as  specially  trained  teachers 
would  be.  In  spite  of  these  handicaps  it  would  appear 
desirable  to  note  attitudes,  appreciations,  moral,  and 

*  Warden,  R.  D.     "  The  Administration  of  Physical  Education  in  the  Public  Elementary 
Schools."     American  Physical  Education  Review.     June,  1011,  p.  391. 


118  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

social  values.  If  such  are  possible  in  the  lessons  pre- 
sented, they  can  be  worked  for  by  grade  teachers  and 
can  be  observed  by  supervisors. 

State  systems  of  physical  education  are  conducted  by 
means  of  inspectors  who  report  to  the  chief  or  general 
inspector  on  the  school  inspected.  A  form  used  in  New 
York  state  is  given  below: 

NEW  YORK  STATE  MILITARY  TRAINING  COMMISSION 
DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Inspector's  Report  on  the  City  or  Village  Organization. 

City Village 

Superintendent 19. .. 

A.    Director  of  Department.    Name 

1.    Secured  professional  training  at  following  institutions: 


2.    Former  positions  held : 


3.  Has  received  temporary  or  permanent  state  teacher's  license . . 

4.  Is  planning  to  improve  himself  by  taking  summer  course  at 
19.. 

B.  Instructors  employed  (including  director  or  supervisor) 

1.  Number  of  instructors  employed  previous  to  January,  1916. 
Men Women 

2.  Number  of  instructors  employed  at  present  time: 

Men Women Total 

3.  Number  of  instructors  having  temporary or  perma- 
nent   state  teacher's  license. 

C.  Number  of  schools  and  distribution  of  instruction: 

1.  Number  of  secondary  schools  — 

a.    Number  of  instructors  devoting  full  time 

6.     Number  of  instructors  devoting  part  time 

2.  Number  of  elementary  schools 

a.  Number  of  instructors  devoting  full  time 

b.  Number  of  instructors  devoting  part  time 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK 


119 


Meeting  requirements 


Elementary  Secondary 
schools        schools 


Time  per  week 


A 

B 
D 
E 

A.  M. 

Elementary 

--Secondary 

P.M. 

In  school  hours 

After  school  hours 

Credit  for  athletics 

In  school  hours 

After  school  hours 

Training  class  for 
teachers  meets 

School  visitations.    The  physical  director  or  an  instructor  visits  each 

grade  in  the  elementary  schools  once  every and  gives 

a  model  lesson  in  setting-up  drills,  gymnastic  drills,  and  games. 

Inspector 

The  following  issued  by  the  New  York  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education  touches  on  some  of  the  difficulties 
involved  in  the  rural  problem. 

SUGGESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 
for  Supervisors,  Instructors,  Directors,  and  Teachers 

RURAL  AND  UNGRADED  SCHOOLS 
General  problem. 

The  problem  of  arranging  the  right  kind  of  a  program  for  a  rural 
school  is  largely  one  of  selection  and  adaptation.  The  individual 
teacher  guided  by  her  district  superintendent  and  physical  training 
supervisor  should  select  from  the  material  given  for  the  different  grades 
such  of  the  action  stories,  games,  and  exercises  as  will  best  suit  the 
needs  of  the  local  situation.  All  the  suggestions  and  articles  given  in 
the  fore  part  of  this  syllabus  will  be  found  helpful  to  the  rural  teacher 


120  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

but  a  few  of  the  special  things  to  be  considered  are  discussed  here  and 
some  of  the  principles  that  govern  this  selection  and  adjustment  are  given. 

Things  to  consider. 

I.    Children 

How  many  and  what  ages  are  they;  how  far  do  they  walk  in  getting 
to  school;  what  work  do  they  have  to  do  before  and  after  school;  what 
instruction  have  they  previously  had  in  exercises,  marching,  games,  etc; 
how  many  are  new  and  had  nothing  last  year;  how  many  are  abnormal 
and  require  special  care  or  modified  work;  who  are  the  natural  leaders? 

II.    Recitation  program 

Best  time  for  "B"  work.  Best  time  for  play  periods.  "D"  work. 
Possibilities  for  correlation  with  other  subjects  as  nature  study,  project 
work,  etc.  What  use  can  be  made  of  the  noon  hour?  In  general 
consider  how  to  lighten  and  brighten  the  other  school  work  for  the 
teacher  and  the  children  by  careful  planning  of  the  recreation  time. 

III.    Space  available  for  indoors  and  outdoors 
Arrangement  of  seats,  desks,  stove,  etc.  to  make  largest  possible  use 
of  the  building.    Size,  slope,  soil,  etc.  of  playground  and  possibilities 
of  improving  it.    What  other  grounds  near  by  may  be  used  when 
school  has  inadequate  space? 

IV.    Equipment 

What  balls,  bean  bags,  etc.  are  owned  by  the  school  for  playing  games 
indoors  and  out;  what  is  available  for  athletics,  jumping  pit,  etc.; 
what  does  the  school  budget  allow  for  these  articles?  Plan  to  secure 
things  most  needed  a  few  at  a  time.  Have  pupils  and  parents  unite 
to  erect  home-made  apparatus  and  provide  play  equipment. 

V.  Attitude  of  community 

Are  certain  parts  of  the  program  objected  to  by  trustees  or  parents 
(folk  dances,  etc.)?  Are  field  days  and  exhibitions  popular?  How 
often  do  parents  visit  the  school? 

VI.  Cooperative  agencies 

Is  there  a  parent  teacher  association?  Are  there  local  church  clubs 
or  societies,  or  national  organizations  conducting  play  or  recreation 
work?  Are  Y.M.C.A.,  Y.W.C.A.,  Boy  Scouts,  Red  Cross,  or  other 
paid  social  or  athletic  workers  available?  Are  there  any  recent  college 
graduates  or  students  now  in  town  who  may  be  made  useful? 
Grouping. 

In  most  schools  of  this  type  all  children  must  take  the  "B"  work 
together  and  most  of  the  tune  must  have  their  "  D  "  work  in  one  group. 
Two  groups  should  be  formed,  however,  in  all  but  the  smallest  schools, 
and  games  and  exercises  adapted  for  older  pupils  taught  to  the  older 
children,  part  of  the  time,  while  the  younger  ones  have  their  work 
separately.  In  larger  schools  three  groups  will  be  found  best.  The 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  121 

divisions  should  not  be  made  by  grades,  but  on  the  basis  of  age,  size, 
and  strength.  Group  one  should  include  pupils  approximately  five 
to  seven  years  of  age;  Group  two,  those  eight  to  ten  years;  Group 
three,  those  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 

Leadership. 

Older  pupils  should  be  trained  to  direct  the  group  plays  and  games  of 
the  younger  group  and  should  be  used  as  leaders  while  the  teacher  is 
busy  with  older  children.  This  should  be  a  definite  part  of  the 
training  of  the  older  pupils,  who  should  also  be  given  experience  in 
taking  charge  of  the  "B"  work.  Make  it  an  honor  at  first,  using 
those  who  have  made  best  progress,  but  give  all  a  chance  sooner  or  later. 

Physical  Training  "A." 
Daily  Health  Inspection. 

Many  teachers  have  correlated  the  morning  health  inspection  with 
the  pupil  health  club  organization.  This  plan  works  very  well  for  at 
least  a  part  of  the  year.  The  rural  teachers  can  find  many  opportuni- 
ties to  be  of  help  in  teaching  health  habits  to  an  entire  family  by  tactful 
use  of  this  daily  inspection.  As  much  personal  follow-up  work  as 
possible  should  be  done  and  the  aid  of  the  district  nurse  invoked  in 
reaching  the  more  needy  cases. 

Syllabus  "B." 
Relief  Drills. 

Principles  governing  the  selection  of  the  setting  up  drills,  relief  drills, 
and  gymnastics  (formal  and  informal). 

For  rural  children  teachers  should  select  and  use  mainly  the  exercises 
that  refresh  and  relieve  the  tired  muscles,  that  bring  about  increased 
agility,  improve  posture,  and  train  in  accurate  and  quick  response  to  a 
spoken  command.  Muscle  building  is  of  secondary  importance. 
These  exercises  should  therefore  be: 

1.  Simple;  not  too  hard  for  the  younger  children. 

2.  Definite  and  exact;  not  liable  to  be  done  incorrectly. 

3.  Suited  to  boys  and  girls  at  the  same  time. 

4.  Corrective;  to  counteract  effect  of  poor  seating. 

5.  Vigorous  enough  to  quicken  circulation,  refresh  the  brain,  and 

"create  a  demand"  for  more  air  in  the  lungs. 

6.  Interesting;  changed  before  becoming  monotonous. 

7.  Joyous  at  times. 

8.  Movements  related  to  normal  activities  of  daily  life. 

9.  Exercises  such  as  will  tend  to  overcome  awkwardness. 

10.  Develop  ideal  of  habitual  good  posture. 

11.  Teach  correct  walking  and  marching. 

12.  Develop  sense  of  rhythm. 

Note— "A,"  "B,"  "C,"  refer  to  sections  of  work  in  the  New  York 
State  Syllabus, 


122  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Principles  in  supervision  of  physical  education. — Dif- 
ferent methods  of  supervision  have  been  indicated; 
desirable  and  undesirable  standards  have  been  suggested. 
It  is  proposed  to  state  the  following  as  principles  for 
guidance  of  supervisors  in  physical  education. 

1.  The  supervisor  and  teacher  must  cooperate. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  supervisor  to  bring  about 
a    cooperative  basis  for  all   the  work  in  physical 
education.   Because  of  the  wide  difference  in  training 
between  the  grade  teacher  and  the  supervisor  of 
physical  education,  the  problem  of  cooperation  in 
this  case  is  exceedingly  difficult.    When  the  physical 
education  period  is  conducted  by  a  special  teacher, 
a  basis  of  cooperation  is  more  readily  laid. 

Regardless  of  the  difficulties,  there  must  be  coop- 
eration.   To  this  end,  certain  things  contribute: 

a.  Common  knowledge  concerning  the  work 
of  the  school,  its  aims,  and  purposes. 

b.  Common  knowledge  and  sympathetic  ap- 
preciation concerning  the  functions  of  a  school, 
the  characteristics  and  problems  of  children,  the 
relations  existing  between  pupil,  teacher,  and 
supervisor. 

c.  Common  knowledge  of  the  special  interests 
of  both  teacher  and   supervisor,  with  under- 
standing of  the  relation  of  special  interests  to  the 
end  in  view. 

2.  The  supervisor  in  cooperation  with  the  prin- 
cipal and  grade  teachers  should  have  a  workable  plan 
for  the  organization  and  supervision  of  play  at  recess, 
for   interclass,   intergroup  and  interclub  activities. 
The  use  of  athletic  tests,  field  meets,  games,  picnics, 
pageants,  and  festivals  will  be  featured  in  all  after 
school  activities.    To  arrange  for  such  group  activities 
is  of  first  importance  for  a  supervisor. 


SUPERVISING  AND  JUDGING  THE  WORK  123 

3.  The  supervisor  should  direct  the  teaching  of 
the  grade  teacher  in  relation  to  the  program  of 
physical  education,  and  give  opportunity  for  observa- 
tion of  good  teaching.    It  is  peculiarly  important  in 
the  more  systematic  work  to  lead  the  grade  teacher 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  program. 

4.  The  supervisor  should  give  help  and  criticism 
that  will  be  constructive  whenever  possible.    Often 
conferences  will  be  arranged  for  all  the  teachers  in  a 
school  to  the  end  that  particular  points    in    the 
program  may  be  made  clear  and  carried  out. 

5.  The  supervisor  should  lay  the  basis  for  co- 
operative teaching  by  making  the  teacher  feel  that 
initiative  shall  not  be  penalized.     Instead,  freedom 
of  action  in  carrying  out  the  prescribed  program  shall 
be  rewarded  by  the  most  thorough  and  effective  help 
that  seeks  to  work  out  the  teacher's  ideas.     The 
stupid  following  of  routine  steps  in  a  syllabus  shall 
not  be  demanded,  except  in  those  cases  where  liberty 
is  not  used  intelligently. 

6.  The  supervisor  should  be  informed  of  the  health 
status  of  the  children  in  the  school,  should  know  the 
general   and   special   developmental   problems,  and 
should  direct  all  efforts  loyally  in   harmony  with 
other  health  forces  in  the  school  to  secure  the  most 
effective  and  most  efficient  health  care  possible. 

7.  The  supervisor  should  avoid  mere  inspection. 
It  is  important  that  for  each  school  there  shall  exist 
a  program  toward  the  realization  of  which  there  will 
be  constant  effort.    Too  frequently,  schools  on  the 
card  of  the  supervisor  mean  mere  inspection.    This 
is  to  be  avoided. 

8.  The  supervisor  in  directing  the  work  of  special 
teachers  of  physical  education  should  aim  to  promote 
initiative  and  seek  through  conferences  and  discus- 


124  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

sions  of  type  lessons  and  other  parts  of  the  program 
to  secure  improvement  in  some  lines  and  modification 
in  others.  The  purpose  of  supervision  is  essentially 
to  help  teachers  do  better  with  supervision  what 
they  would, do  less  well  without  supervision.  In  no 
sense,  is  the  supervisor  to  act  the  role  of  policeman 
or  inspector.  The  personality,  judgment,  intelli- 
gence, and  training  of  the  teacher  always  shall  be 
recognized  to  the  end  that  the  best  that  the  teacher 
has  to  give  will  be  utilized  under  the  most  helpful 
conditions  to  secure  for  boys  and  girls  the  largest 
opportunities  for  the  development  of  desirable  phys- 
ical, mental,  and  moral  qualities. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  AYRES,  WILLIAMS,  and  WOOD.   Healthful  Schools,  How  to  Build, 

Equip,  and  Maintain  Them,  Houghton  Mifflin  &  Company, 
Boston,  1916. 
DRESSLER,  F.  B.    School  Hygiene,  The  Macmillan  Company, 

New  York,  1913. 
,~.^  Two  excellent  books  giving  the  essentials  of  school  hygiene. 

2.  LILLIARD,    W.   HUSTON.     "The  Andover  Plan."     American 

Physical  Education  Review,  April,  1915,  p.  195. 

PAGE,  PIERSON  S.  "Administration  and  Management  of  Sec- 
ondary School  Education."  American  Physical  Education 
Review,  p.  402,  June,  1915. 

Two  good  articles  on  the  Andover  plan. 

3.  SALEEBY,  C.  W.    Health,  Strength,  and  Happiness,  M.  Kenner- 

ley,  2  East  29th  St.,  New  York,  1908. 

An  excellent  treatment  in  popular  style  of  health  values  in 
education. 

4.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.     Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  I,  Teachers 

College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

JAMES,  WILLIAM.  Principles  of  Psychology,  2  Vol.,  Henry  Holt 
&  Company,  New  York,  1905. 

ANGELL,  J.  R.  Psychology.  Henry  Holt  &  Company,  New 
York,  1905. 

Important  texts  that  discuss  the  emotional  and  motor  rela- 
tionship. 

5.  MUNSTERBERG,  HUGO.    Psychology  and  Social  Sanity.   Double- 

day,   Page  &  Company.  Garden  City,   N.  Y..    1914,  pp. 
273-288. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND 
PLAYGROUND 

Importance  of  good  equipment. — There  is  a  tendency 
to  overemphasize  intellectual  development  and  "the 
acquirement  of  recorded  knowledge"  and  its  result  is 
pictorially  represented  by  the  physical  condition  of 
school  children.  Efforts  are  made  to  provide  for  the 
physical  development  in  the  life  of  the  child,  but  their 
"scope  is  primitive,  unsatisfying,  unworthy.  The  tag  end 
of  the  curriculum  is  given  to  physical  education  and 
hygiene;  the  basement  or  sand  lot  is  its  home  too  often. 
It  is  nothing  short  of  criminal  that  the  most  important 
department  dealing  with  the  health  of  the  child  is  usually 
housed  in  the  basement.  A  beautiful  high  school  in  a 
western  city  has  accommodations  for  2,590  pupils,  and  in- 
adequately provides  two  narrow  gymnasia  (28'  x  67')  in 
the  basement  for  the  boys  and  girls.  The  gymnasium  is 
too  often  assigned  to  an  odd  space  left  after  provision  has 
been  made  for  beautiful  study  rooms  where  the  child  may 
sit  and  think.  Dear,  sweet,  growing  childhood,  these  are 
plans  for  your  welfare !  Very  little  is  known  of  your  desires, 
and  little  appreciation  is  given  to  your  longings  to  jump 
and  run  and  tussle  with  your  mates.  Prime  factoring  is 
essential,  but  what  of  the  need  of  the  child  to  express 
itself  in  physical  activity!  What  of  games! 

Could  a  race  of  Greeks  have  been  developed  in  a  cellar? 
Could  the  laurel  and  bay  have  crowned  one  who  sat  at  a 
desk  all  day  except  for  two  three-minute  periods  of 

125 


126  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

setting  up  exercises?  Surely  it  is  not  without  some  fear 
that  one  contemplates  the  effect  of  concentrated  tabulated 
exercises  prescribed  by  an  anatomist  and  administered  in 
a  cellar.  Greek  education  produced  philosophers,  scien- 
tists, rare  thinkers,  beautiful  bodies  and  spirits;  modern 
education  is  producing  too  often  nerveless,  diseased,  and 
weakened  children.  The  child,  and  adult  as  well,  will 
never  escape  the  need  for  exercise;  it  cannot  be  satisfied 
in  the  traditional  exercising  room. 

Use  of  the  equipment  by  boys  and  girls. — Gymnasia, 
pools,  and  athletic  fields  were  provided  at  first  to  serve 
boys  only.  To-day  in  many  schools  and  colleges  facilities 
are  being  made  available  for  girls  also.  This  is  as  it 
should  be.  It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that  in 
many  places  the  boys  monopolize  existing  equipment  and 
there  is  no  effort  to  provide  facilities  for  girls  in  indoor 
and  outdoor  work.  This  tendency  cannot  be  too  strongly 
criticized.  The  present  interest  of  girls  in  athletic  sports, 
swimming,  and  all  forms  of  physical  education  challenges 
every  administrator  in  this  field  to  meet  fairly  and  justly 
the  proposal  for  girls'  activities.  Adjustments  can  be 
made,  by  part  time  arrangements,  until  separate  equip- 
ment is  available.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that 
careful  supervision  is  essential  when  both  sexes  use  the 
same  indoor  equipment. 

Administration  of  the  gymnasium. — The  provision  of 
gymnasium,  pool,  or  playground  does  not  automatically 
secure  the  health  and  happiness  of  those  who  use  the  facil- 
ities; these  treasures,  in  part,  depend  upon  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  plant.  The  administration  of  a  gymnasium 
is  easy  or  difficult  depending  upon  its  arrangement.  It 
would  seem  important  to  point  out  good  features  that 
relate  to  efficiency  in  administration. 

The  entrance  to  any  part  of  the  building  except  visitors' 
gallery  and  offices  should  be  through  locker  rooms.  From 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  127 

here  those  using  the  building  can  go  to  gymnasium  floor, 
pool,  showers,  or  toilets.  There  should  be  an  entrance 
to  the  gymnasium  floor  direct  for  use  in  assembly  of 
crowds  for  other  than  gymnastic  purposes — at  all  other 
times  it  should  be  closed  and  entrance  permitted  only 
through  locker  rooms. 

The  situation  of  the  director's  office  is  very  important. 
It  should  be  in  connection  with  the  anthropometric  or 
examining  room  and  gymnasium  floor.  The  examining 
room  should  connect  directly  with  the  locker  rooms,  so 
that  individuals  may  readily  be  examined  without  provid- 
ing dressing  rooms  in  the  examiner's  office.  The  visitors' 
gallery  should  have  a  separate  entrance,  not  connected 
either  with  the  gymnasium  floor  or  locker  room.  Entrance 
to  the  running  track  should  be  made  easily  from  the  gym- 
nasium floor. 

In  high  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  the  double  gym- 
nasium is  advisable,  and  in  large  schools  necessary. 
There  should  be  distinct  separation  of  locker  rooms  and 
bath.  There  should  be  separate  offices  for  the  man  and 
woman  director.  There  should  be  a  rest  room  in  connec- 
tion with  the  girls'  gymnasium. 

The  locker  room. — Whenever  possible  without  losing 
the  contact  with  the  gymnasium  and  examining  room, 
the  director's  office  should  be  placed  to  give  a  clear  view 
of  the  locker  room.  This  supervision  is  desirable.  Often 
it  is  not  possible  because  the  gymnasium  and  locker 
room  are  on  different  floors.  In  any  case  the  locker 
room  should  be  so  situated  that  supervision  by  a  custo- 
dian is  possible. 

It  is  agreed  by  experts  that  successful  administration 
of  the  gymnasium  and  pool  is  closely  associated  with  the 
control  that  can  be  exercised  over  the  locker  room.  The 
locker  room  is  the  key  to  the  gymnasium.  It  must  be 
situated  to  connect  directly  with  gymnasium,  showers, 


128  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

pool,  examining  room,  or  toilets.  The  usual  arrangement 
is  to  provide  a  locker  for  each  student  in  the  school. 
When  a  student  has  a  class  in  the  gymnasium,  he  goes 
to  the  locker  room,  places  his  street  clothes  in  the  locker, 
and  puts  on  the  gymnasium  suit.  On  leaving  the 
gymnasium  the  suit  is  left  in  the  locker.  Very  often 
these  gymnasium  suits  become  wholly  unfit  to  wear,  the 
odor  in  the  locker  room  becomes  offensive,  and  the  suit 
serves  as  a  source  of  infection  following  slight  skin 
injuries.  To  eradicate  these  conditions,  there  have 
developed  new  ways  of  handling  the  suits  and  controlling 
the  use  of  lockers.  One  of  these  is  the  "  Kansas  City 
Locker  System."  It  provides  as  many  lockers  as  the 
largest  number  in  any  of  the  classes;  enough  fibre  boxes 
to  accommodate  all  of  the  students  who  use  the  physical 
education  department.  These  boxes  are  stored  on  steel 
trucks;  the  boxes  for  girls  are  13"  x  13"  x  8",  and  for 
boys  13"  x  9"  x  8".  Two  keyboards  are  provided  on 
which  are  hung  the  tagged  keys.  Each  key  has  a  safety 
pin  attached  for  fastening  to  the  gymnasium  suit.  In 
addition,  there  are  one  combination  washer  and  wringer, 
one  tumbler  drier,  one  table,  four  canvas  laundry  trucks, 
one  marker  machine.  The  student,  on  going  to  the 
physical  education  department,  presents  his  card  on  which 
is  stamped  his  box  number,  and  receives  his  key  and  box 
containing  suit,  clean  towel,  and  small,  half-ounce  bar  of 
soap.  He  then  goes  to  the  dressing  room  and  puts  on  his 
gymnasium  suit,  leaving  his  street  suit  in  the  locker, 
locks  the  locker,  and  pins  the  key  to  his  gymnasium  belt. 
The  process  is  reversed  when  he  returns.  The  soiled 
gymnasium  suit  is  washed  and  dried  and  placed  in  the 
proper  box.  It  is  usually  not  possible  to  provide  clean 
suits  for  each  class  session.  It  may  not  be  desirable. 
Certainly,  the  effort  to  combat  disease  germs  is  very 
laudable,  but  such  procedures  may  be  overemphasized. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  129 

The  towels  are  washed  every  time  they  are  used.  The 
dressing  room  for  girls  is  arranged  in  alcoves,  but  they 
receive  their  boxes  in  the  same  way. 

Another  system  devised  to  lower  the  cost  of  installation, 
economize  space,  and  make  for  cleanliness  is  the  so-called 
"Box  Locker  Plan."  The  cost  of  maintenance  in  this 
plan  would  be  less.  Both  of  these  plans  are  objectionable 
in  that  they  leave  nothing  to  the  initiative  of  the  pupil. 
They  are  machine-like.  In  many  schools  provided  with 
the  old  locker  system,  sanitary  values  could  be  preserved 
by  combining  with  the  physical  work  instruction  in 
personal  hygiene  and  regular  inspection  of  suits  and 
towels.  Students  with  dirty  suits  or  dirty  towels  in 
their  possession  on  inspection  should  be  educated 
along  sanitary  lines  by  the  proper  administrative 
officer. 

One  hundred  dressing  booths  two  feet  ten  inches  by  four  feet  should 
be  supplied.  This  gives  booths  for  two  classes  of  fifty  girls  each,  one 
coming  to  the  gymnasium  and  the  other  leaving  it.  In  gymnasiums 
where  girls  and  boys  alternate  in  its  use,  or  where  the  gymnasium  is  not 
used  continuously,  fifty  dressing  booths  would  be  sufficient.  Again, 
it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  number  of  dressing  booths  to  fifty  by  having 
one  girl  dress  in  a  booth  containing  the  clothes  of  a  girl  on  the  gym- 
nasium floor,* 

An  excellent  locker  arrangement  has  been  worked  out 
at  Noyes  Gymnasium,  University  of  Chicago. 

Locker  records. — In  colleges  and  universities  it  is 
customary  to  include  in  the  fee  paid  at  registration  time, 
a  charge  for  the  use  of  the  gymnasium.  This  usually 
includes  the  use  of  lockers.  In  schools  lockers  are  usually 
free.  In  assigning  lockers,  a  deposit  of  twenty-five  or 
fifty  cents  is  required  for  the  key  or  lock.  If  the  locker 
has  a  combination  lock,  no  deposit  is  necessary.  No 
locker  should  be  assigned  unless  evidence  is  presented  of 

*  Physical  Education  in  Secondary  Schools.  Bureau  of  Education.  Department  of 
Interior,  Washington;  D.  C.  (Bulletin  No.  50,  1917). 


130  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

the  individual's  standing  in  the  institution,  as  a  pupil  or 
as  a  student  able  to  show  the  bursar's  receipt  for  fees 
paid.  If  locker  privilege  includes  use  of  the  pool,  approval 
of  physical  condition  by  the  school  physician  or  director 
of  physical  education  should  be  required. 

With  these  conditions  satisfied  the  clerk  may  go  ahead 
with  the  assignment  of  the  locker.  "  If  combination  locks 
are  used  there  should  be  first,  a  numerical  file  of  the  com- 
pany's combination  cards;  second,  a  file  including  the 
numerical  file  of  lockers  with  lock  numbers  and  combina- 
tions, the  name  of  the  locker  holder ."  * 

If  keys  are  issued,  the  numerical  file  of  lockers  should 
be  placed  on  cards  arranged  in  file  or  on  ruled  paper  or 
in  a  book  and  the  name  of  the  holder  written  after  the 
number.  For  looking  up  locker  numbers  it  is  convenient 
to  arrange  the  names  in  alphabetical  groups:  thus,  if 
four  hundred  lockers  are  available,  use  the  numbers  from 
1  to  50  for  names  beginning  with  A,  B,  C;  51  to  100  for 
D,  E,  F;  101  to  150  for  G,  H,  I;  151  to  200  for  J,  K,  L; 
201  to  250  for  M,  N,  O;  251  to  300  for  P,  Q,  R;  301  to 
350  for  S,  T,  U;  and  351  to  400  for  V,  W,  X,  Y,  Z. 
If  it  Is  necessary  to  place  a  name  in  another  group 
because  all  the  lockers  in  the  original  are  assigned,  this 
may  easily  be  indicated  by  check  marks  in  front  of 
the  number. 

The  money  received  from  deposits  for  locker  keys  should 
be  placed  in  a  safe  and  should  not  be  spent.  If  more 
than  one  hundred  dollars  is  received,  and  if  the  student 
body  is  not  rapidly  changing  it  will  be  found  desirable 
to  place  this  money  in  a  saving  bank  and  receive  interest 
for  its  use  during  the  eight  to  nine  months. 

Hygiene  of  instruction. — It  is  a  common  observation 
that  college  students  who  pursue  courses  in  hygiene  and 

*  Physical   Work— Management  and  Methods.     Association   Press.     New  York,    1913, 
pp.  69-70. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  131 

sanitation  and  otherwise  know  the  value  of  cleanliness 
and  bathing,  often  wear  gymnastic  costume  that  is 
distinctly  dirty.  It  is  a  very  interesting  sidelight  on  the 
health  aims  of  physical  education  that  frequently  children 
are  exercised  in  dirty,  dark,  and  poorly  ventilated  gym- 
nasia with  no  opportunity  for  proper  care  of  the  body 
after  the  exercise  period.  Therefore  an  adequate  adminis- 
tration of  physical  education  will  provide  means  for 
securing  the  full  health  of  hygienic  benefits  accruing  from 
the  activity.  It  is  important  to  indicate  the  points  that 
should  receive  consideration,  whenever  possible,  in  the 
gymnasium,  pool,  and  playground. 

1.  Showers.  The  need  for  bathing  in  the  public  schools 
is  so  great  that  some  provision  should  be  made  to  secure 
a  minimum  requirement.  It  would  seem  possible  to 
arrange  for  classes  on  certain  days,  or  smaller  groups 
to  bathe  after  the  gymnasium  or  play  period.  The 
advantages  (2)  are  very  great  and  the  opportunity 
to  help  develop  health  habits  in  this  respect  should  not 
be  lost. 

The  bath  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  health  measures 
at  the  disposal  of  the  physical  educator.  Large  city  high 
schools  frequently  conduct  classes  in  the  gymnasium  for 
an  hour  and  send  the  pupils  back  to  the  classroom  without 
a  change  of  clothing,  and  with  the  body  warm  and  per- 
spiring. This  is  unhygienic,  although  the  class  may  have 
been  engaged  a  few  minutes  before  dismissal  in  "hygienic 
exercises. " 

The  provision  of  a  period  for  the  use  of  the  shower 
may  easily  be  made  by  arranging  for  a  double  period  and 
by  using  part  of  this  time  also  for  instruction  in  hygiene. 
The  following  schedule  *  shows  the  possibility  in  this 
connection: 

*  Physical   Education   in   Secondary   Schools.       Bureau  of  Education,  Department  of 
Interior,  Washington,  D.  C.  (Bulletin  No.  50,  1917). 


132 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Sample  arrangement  of  double  gymnasium  periods  in  a  high  school. 

SCHEDULE 


Group  I 

15  Undress 

Ex.45 

1 

1C 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

C 

1 

Ex.45 

£ 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Group  II 

tS 

1 

B 

Class  45 

1C 

10 

1-1 

I 

1 

* 

Group  III 
Group  IV 
Group  V 
Group  VI 

Class  45 

Class  45 

I 

£ 

Ex.45 

M 

10 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

V 

1 

fc« 

43 

A 

IQ 

Class  45 

Cla 

88  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

15  Hygiene 
15  Undress 

Ex  45 

4 

10 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

1 

Undress 

Ex  45 

•I 

Group  VII 

10 

£ 

-1 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

Class  45 

I 

i 

1 

1 

«o 

This  schedule  provides  for  seven  classes  of  fifty  pupils  each;  that  is, 
theoretically  three  hundred  and  fifty  pupils  per  day  per  gymnasium, 
or  eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  different  pupils  on  the  basis  of  two 
double  periods  per  week  for  each  pupil.  This  arrangement  uses  the 
gymnasium  continuously  and  allows  for  alternation  of  two  teachers  in 
instruction  in  hygiene,  physical  education  practice,  and  supervision  of 
the  bathing.  Three  hours  of  instruction  during  the  school  day,  plus 
two  hours  on  the  playground  and  in  the  gymnasium  or  pool  after  school, 
should  be  the  maximum  requirement  for  one  teacher.  The  remainder 
of  the  day  is  needed  for  administration  and  the  keeping  up  of  equip- 
ment, records,  etc. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  133 

College  classes  provide  a  time  allotment  for  showers. 
Twenty  minutes  is  usually  given  for  girls  and  fifteen 
minutes  for  boys.  When  very  large  classes  are  to  be 
cared  for  and  when  facilities  are  limited,  careful  organ- 
ization and  supervision  can  overcome  the  handicaps  by 
using  the  showers  in  squads.  Central  control  of  the 
showers  can  allot  a  certain  number  of  minutes  for  each 
squad.  This  will  do  away  with  the  dawdling  that  so 
frequently  occurs  in  shower  and  locker  rooms. 

The  Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary 
Education  advises  the  following  plan  for  showers: 

a.  For  boys — An  open  room  should  be  used  for  moral  and  hygienic 
reasons.  Single  showers  with  individual  control  will  supply 
five  boys  each.  If  multiple  showers  with  central  control  are 
provided  each  shower  will  supply  seven  boys.  Multiple 
showers  with  central  control  are  recommended,  as  they  save 
tune,  water,  and  space.  The  shower  and  drying  room  should 
contain  at  least  twenty  square  feet  per  shower.  This  gives 
adequate  room  for  drying  in  the  shower  room.  The  showers 
should  be  placed,  without  enclosing,  on  the  side  wall  of  an 
open  room. 

6.  For  girls— Closed  shower  booths  (3'  3"  x  3').  should  be  used. 
One  shower  should  be  provided  with  individual  control  for 
each  three  girls,  or  one  shower  with  multiple  (central) 
control  for  each  five  girls.  Multiple  (central)  control  is 
recommended  where  an  attendant  can  regulate  all  the 
showers  (1). 

2.  Showers  and  swimming  in  the  pool.  Bathing  in 
the  school  pool  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance. 
A  report  from  a  city  school  states: 

...  An  outbreak  of  a  contagious  skin  disease  among  pupils  of  the 
high  school  has  been  traced  by  the  medical  inspector  to  the  bathing 
pool  in  the  building.  Can  you  suggest  a  simple  precaution  against  the 
pollution  of  swimming  pools? 

From  an  administrative  standpoint  the  pool  must  be 
kept  clean.  The  effort  to  secure  this  result  should  be 


134  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

directed  along  two  lines;  one  aimed  at  the  water  and  the 

tank  (the  pool),  the  other  at  the  individual  user  of  the 

pool  (the  swimmer). 

It  remains  at  this  point  to  consider  these  two  problems: 
a.    The  pool.     That  the  pool  water  should  be  kept 

clean  is  emphasized  by  Bunker  and  Whipple: 

It  was  found  that  washing  a  dirty  male  .hospital  patient  yielded 
twenty-five  thousand  million  bacteria;  that  a  smooth  skinned  "clean" 
man  gave  three  thousand  million  as  against  fourteen  thousand  million 
from  a  hairy  skinned  individual. 

The  feet  of  a  boy  in  the  corridor,  about  to  enter  the  pool,  yielded 
eighty  million. 

That  the  pool  water  can  be  kept  clean  and  pure  is  now 
known,  and  that  the  method  involves  a  saving  of  expense 
over  what  was  formerly  considered  necessary,  makes  its 
adoption  all  the  more  certain. 

Arthur  M.  Crane  has  set  forth  the  opinion  of  most 
hygienists  in  this  particular  and  recommends  the  use  of 
hypochlorite  of  lime  with  refiltration.  In  the  Proceeding 
of  the  American  Association  for  Promoting  Hygiene  and 
Public  Baths,  he  says: 

However,  it  is  only  fair  to  point  out  that  while  many  of  the  reports 
from  pools  where  refiltration  only  is  employed  indicate  high  bacteri- 
ological efficiency,  this  cannot  reasonably  be  expected  so  confidently  as 
if  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  treatment  also  were  used.  While  it  is  quite 
possible  to  operate  a  mechanical  filter  so  as  to  deliver  at  the  outlet  of 
the  filter  a  water  pure  to  the  degree  demanded  by  health  authorities 
for  drinking  water,  and  a  pool  could  therefore  be  filled  with  pure  water, 
yet  the  first  individual  entering  it  would  contaminate  it;  and  while  the 
filter  could  always  be  operated  so  that  the  water  would  always  be 
pure  the  full  effect  of  this  would  be  lost  so  soon  as  the  water  mixed 
with  the  other  water  in  the  pool  which  had  already  been  contami- 
nated. 

Ordinary  commercial  hypochlorite  of  lime  contains 
about  30  per  cent  available  chlorine.  It  is  this  nascent 
chlorine  which  acts  to  kill  the  bacteria.  One  pound  of 
the  hypochlorite  will  treat  satisfactorily  a  hundred- 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  13S 

thousand-gallon  pool  and  since  the  lime  costs  only  nine 
cents  per  pound,  the  annual  bill  for  this  preventive  will 
be  only  about  $17.00.  The  cost  of  heating  the  water  in 
the  pool  and  the  cost  of  the  water  itself  are  maintenance 
charges  which  refiltration  cuts  down.  Reports  show  that 
it  takes  on  an  average  two  tons  of  coal  to  heat  a  hundred- 
thousand-gallon  pool  to  the  temperature  usually  main- 
tained (70°-75°  F.).  In  addition,  the  water  used  is 
considerable  when  emptied  once  or  twice  a  week.  In 
New  York  City,  the  rate  is  $1.00  per  thousand  cubic 
feet.  To  fill  a  thirty-thousand-gallon  pool  costs  about 
$4.00.  If  the  pool  is  filled  fresh  twice  a  week  it  would 
cost  $8.00  for  water  alone.  Considering  then  the  cost  of 
the  fuel  to  heat  the  water  and  the  cost  of  the  water 
itself,  refiltration  is  recommended  on  the  basis  of  economy 
alone.  The  pool  could  be  filtered  continuously  for  less 
than  it  would  cost  for  a  weekly  renewal  without  refiltra- 
tion. Other  methods  for  purification  of  the  water  of  the 
pool  are  the  ultra-violet  ray  sterilizer  (3)  and  th'e  Bethlehem 
plan  (3).  Turbidity  in  the  water  or  suspended  particles 
renders  the  ultra-violet  ray  inefficient  for  sterilization 
purposes. 

Refiltration  and  disinfection  of  the  water  are  considered 
to-day  as  standard  and  mutually  interdependent  pro- 
cedures in  the  sanitary  control  of  swimming  pools.  The 
hypochlorite  method  is  the  method  generally  employed. 
One  disadvantage  with  the  hypochlorite  has  been  in  its 
application.  If  too  much  is  used  there  is  a  disagreeable 
taste  to  the  water  and  irritating  action  on  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  eyes  and  nose;  if  too  little  is  used  the 
bacterial  count  is  not  properly  controlled.  The  only 
satisfactory  method  of  chlorination  is  by  an  automatic 
control  that  feeds  into  the  recirculated  water  a  standard 
amount  of  liquid  chlorine.  The  cost  for  liquid  chlorine 
distributed  by  a  chlorinator  would  amount  to  about 


136  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

six  cents  a  day  for  a  fifty-thousand-gallon  pool  recir- 
culated  once  daily.  The  California  State  Board  of 
Health  requires  from  two  to  five  pounds  of  liquid 
chlorine  for  each  million  gallons.  Whittaker  (3)  has 
made  extensive  experiments  with  chlorine  and  advises 
eight  pounds  of  liquid  chlorine  to  each  million 
gallons  of  water  on  the  basis  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  swimmers  a  day  in  a  sixty-thousand-gallon 
pool. 

The  effectiveness  of  any  method  used  can  only  be 
determined  by  frequent  chemical  and  bacterial  analysis 
that  gives  the  bacterial  content  per  cubic  centimeter 
and  the  type  of  organisms  present.  In  this  way  infor- 
mation may  be  obtained  regarding  the  efficiency  of  any 
method  used  and  the  condition  of  the  filters  if  filtration 
is  employed.  If  chlorination  is  employed,  water  analysis 
is  the  only  means  of  determining  its  efficiency.  If  ozone, 
ultra  violet  light,  or  any  other  method  is  employed, 
water  analysis  will  indicate  the  effectiveness  of  the 
procedure. 

The  f  ollowing^report  on  the  water  in  one  pool  employing 
chlorination  and  filtration  show  efficiency  at  one  time  and 
inefficiency  at  another  on  this  important  matter  of  keep- 
ing the  water  pure.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  unsatis- 
factory reports  on  January  19  and  22  showed  4700  and 
5700  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter.  This  indicates  that 
the  chlorination  is  inadequate*  and  possibly  that  the 
filters  need  overhauling.  The  report  for  January  25 
was  very  satisfactory.  It  is  important  to  determine 
the  type  of  organisms  present  with  reference  to  B.  Coli 
and  B.  Welchii.  Then-  presence  indicates  insufficient 
chlorination. 

*  Abstract  from  California  State  Department  of  Health.  Bulletin  No.  35,  1919.  "As  a 
tentative  standard  a  total  bacterial  count  of  1000  colonies  per  cubic  centimeter  on  agar 
incubated  at  37.5  C,  and  a  B.  Coli  count  of  one  (1)  per  cubic  centimeter  is  set  for  the  pool 
water  in  any  part  of  the  pool." 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND 


137 


Dr.  J.  F.  Williams, 

Thompson  Building, 
Teachers  College. 
Sir: 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  bacteriological  examination  of 
samples  of  water  taken  at  the  swimming  pool,  Thompson  Building, 
Teachers  College,  for  week  ending  January  27,  1920. 


Source                      Date 
of                            of 
Sample                 Collection 

Bacteria           B.  Coli           Percent 
per  cc.                in              Removal 
37o  C.       0.1  1.0  lOcc.      Bacteria 

Tap,  Raw               Jan.  19 
Water                  2  P.M. 

30             000 

Pool 
Chlorinated 

4750             000 

Tap,  Raw              Jan.  22. 
Water               1.45  P.M. 

27             000 

Pool 
Chlorinated 

5700             000 

Tap,  Raw              Jan.  25 
Water                  2  P.M. 

30             000 

Pool 
Chlorinated 

150             000 

Respectfully 
S.J.B. 

Another  method  recently  reviewed  and  set  forth  by 
Manheimer*  seems  to  be  valuable  and  should  be  widely 
tested.  It  consists  in  the  use  of  ozone  as  a  disinfectant. 
It  is  apparently  efficacious,  inexpensive,  and  has  no  dis- 
agreeable effects  upon  the  water. 

*  Manheimer,  W.  A.  "  The  Application  of  Ozone  to  the  Purification  of  Swimming  Pools." 
Public  Health  Report*.  March  1,  1918.  Reprint  No.  456.  United  States  Public  Health 
Service. 


138  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

b.  The  swimmer.  Regarding  the  cleansing  of  the  body 
of  the  swimmer  it  is  important  for  the  supervisor  to  pass 
upon  the  procedure  used  (4).  This  point  is  easily  covered 
in  men's  pools;  it  is  more  difficult  in  women's  pools.  In 
women's  pools,  proper  cleansing  of  the  body  will  occur, 
probably,  if  the  equipment  conveniently  lends  itself  to 
the  results  desired,  if  the  importance  and  significance  of 
compliance  is  indicated,  and  if  there  is  some  definite 
requirement  that  will  insure  at  least  part  of  the  regula- 
tions. To  care  for  these  three  points  it  will  be  found 
helpful  to  have:  (a)  soap  available  either  in  liquid  or 
powder  form  in  the  shower  stall;  (b)  instructions  posted 
in  appropriate  places  showing  the  method  of  the  adminis- 
tration in  keeping  the  water  clean  and  leading  up  to  a 
statement  of  the  necessity  for  individual  cooperation  in 
minimizing  the  chances  of  contamination;  and  (c)  a  rule 
that  all  users  of  the  pool  must  take  a  shower  before  using 
the  pool  and  must  not  have  a  swimming  suit  on  when  the 
shower  is  taken. 

A  method  used  in  a  Detroit  high  school  for  girls  that 
solves  this  third  problem  is  a  plan  that  provides  the 
following:  On  coming  to  the  pool  the  pupil  is  given  two 
bath  towels  and  two  safety  pins.  She  takes  these  to  her 
dressing  booth,  undresses,  and  covers  the  body  with  the 
two  towels  pinned  together  at  their  ends  over  the  shoulders. 
The  girl  then  goes  to  the  shower  and  while  in  the  shower, 
the  attendant  places  the  swimming  suit  over  the  door  of 
the  alcove.  This  plan  eliminates  the  possibility  of  taking 
a  shower  over  the  swimming  suit. 

In  boys'  and  men's  pools  no  clothing  should  be  worn. 
A  hot  cleansing  shower  bath  with  soap  should  always 
precede  the  plunge.  In  girls'  and  women's  pools,  clothing 
should  be  sterilized  after  each  plunge,  and  kept  at  the 
natatorium  by  the  attendants.  A  cleansing  shower  bath 
should  be  insisted  upon.  From  what  has  been  found 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  139 

valuable  in  many  pools,  it  is  important  to  specify  the 
following  rules  and  regulations  for  a  swimming  pool: 

1.  Maintain  the  water  in  the  pool  pure  and  clear  by  employing 

refiltration  and  hypochlorite  of  lime. 

2.  Have  the  pool  well  lighted  by  sunlight,  if  possible,  by  artificial 

light  if  necessary. 

3.  Have  an  attendant  always  on  duty  when  the  pool  is  in  use; 

grant  no  admission  at  other  times. 

4.  Prevent  persons  with  any  communicable  disease  from  using  the 

pool;  examine  the  heart  of  every  person  using  the  pool. 

5.  Enforce  the  cleansing  of  each  bather  before  entering  the  pool. 

This  may  be  accomplished  by, 
a.    Admittance  to  pool  only  through  showers. 
6.     Suits  must  be  taken  off  and  thrown  over  shower  bath 
door  while  in  the  bath  (for  women) . 

6.  Allow  no  unsterilized  clothing  to  be  worn  in  the  pool. 

7.  Do  not  permit  bathers  to  wear  stockings  in  the  pool.    Guard 

against  the  wearing  of  undergarments  under  the  bathing  suit. 
Insist  that  all  women  bathers  shall  wear  rubber  caps. 

8.  Provide  a  scum  gutter  around  the  pool;  prohibit  expectoration 

in  the  pool. 

9.  Keep  visitors  from  the  walk  around  the  pool.    Visitors  must 

stay  in  the  gallery. 

10.  Prohibit  handkerchiefs  in  the  water;   allow  no  cold  cream  or 

powder  to  be  put  on  the  face  when  going  into  the  water; 
prevent  bathers  with  cuts,  vaccinations,  corn  plasters,  or 
bandages  from  using  the  pool. 

11.  Have  a  long  pole  on  either  side  of  the  pool  with  which  to  help 

bathers  who  go  beyond  their  depth. 

12.  Do  not  have  any  obstruction  in  the  pool  or  along  the  edge  of 

the  pool.  Do  not  allow  running  on  the  tile  approach  to  the 
life  rail. 

3.  Cleanliness  and  care  of  the  gymnasium.  The  gym- 
nasium should  be  kept  clean.  This  should  be  in- 
terpreted to  mean  freedom  from  dust  or  dirt  on  floors, 
walls,  apparatus,  and  windows.  Unless  the  floor  is  oiled, 
it  should  be  mopped  at  least  once  a  week.  The  oiled 
floor  for  the  gymnasium  is  not  recommended  because  of 
its  many  disadvantages  for  games. 

One  of  the  finest  boys'  schools  in  the  East  recently 
completed  a  splendid  gymnasium.  The  plan  in  its  physical 


140  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

equipment  is  ideal;  the  care  is  entirely  unsatisfactory. 
The  floor  of  the  gymnasium  is  always  covered  with  dust, 
the  windows  are  dirty,  the  locker  room  odor  permeates 
the  entire  lower  floor,  and  the  showers  have  rarely  if  ever 
been  cleaned.  The  plant  is  not  serving  its  users  in  the 
most  helpful  way  because  it  has  not  been  cared  for. 

a.  Cleaning  floors.  The  gymnasium  floor  should  be 
mopped  at  least  once  a  week.  If  for  any  reason  it  is 
necessary  to  permit  the  use  of  street  shoes  on  the  gym- 
nasium floor,  the  mopping  should  be  frequent  enough  to 
keep  the  floor  free  from  dust  and  dirt.  In  some  gymnasia 
the  floor  is  varnished.  Such  floors  should  be  cleaned 
daily  with  oil-sawdust  sweeping. 

6.  School  rooms  as  gymnasia.  Schoolroom  floors  at 
times  are  treated  with  floor  oil  to  keep  down  the  dust. 
This  is  of  advantage  especially  where  the  gymnastic 
classes  are  conducted  in  the  schoolroom.  Wallace  Man- 
heimer  made  a  study  of  floor  oil  as  a  dust  preventive  in 
schoolrooms  where  physical  training  classes  were  con- 
ducted. His  conclusions  are  as  follows: 

1.  Bacteriological  examinations  of  the  air  of  four  classrooms  were 

made  both  before  and  after  conducting  physical  exercises. 
Two  of  the  rooms  had  been  treated  with  floor  dressing,  while 
two  had  been  untreated.    These  tests  showed : 
a.    That  there  was  less  dust  in  the  treated  than  in  the  untreated 
rooms  even  before  the  floors  were  disturbed,  though  the 
differences  were  not  marked. 

6.  That  the  oil  was  efficient  in  causing  more  than  80  per  cent 
of  the  dust  to  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  floors  disturbed 
by  physical  exercises. 

2.  Similar  tests  made  before  and  after  the  rooms  had  been  swept 

indicate  an  efficiency  of  over  '85  per  cent.  Thus,  the  oil  is 
valuable  in  protecting  not  only  the  health  of  teachers  and 
students,  but  also  that  of  workmen  employed  to  clean  the 
room. 

3.  Bacteriological  tests  made  on  experimental  boards  (artificial 

floors),  under  controlled  conditions,  verified  the  above  con- 
clusions and  indicated  an  even  higher  percentage  of  efficiency 
(91-  100  per  cent). 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  141 

4.  Wherever  the  raising  of  dust  from  the  floor  might  be  injurious 
to  persons,  merchandise,  etc.,  the  use  of  floor  oil  is  urged  as  a 
simple  and  efficient  preventive.* 

c.  Testing  of  apparatus.  All  suspended  apparatus 
should  be  tested  for  safety  twice  a  year.  It  is  often 
convenient  and  entirely  satisfactory  to  test  at  vacation 
times.  Ropes,  swings,  rings,  etc.,  should  be  absolutely 
safe.  The  test  should  be  made  as  follows: 

(1)  Carefully  examine  the  wearing  parts  for  signs  of 
cracks,  breaks,  or  excessive  wear. 

(2)  Test  for  strength  of  parts  by  having  two  men 
hang,  full  weight,  on  apparatus. 

Apparatus  should  be  inspected  at  regular  intervals  and 
tested  thoroughly  at  each  vacation  time.  The  following 
memorandum  is  illustrative  of  the  kind  of  instructions 
that  may  be  needed  to  secure  the  proper  use  of  equipment. 

INSTRUCTIONS  ON  USE  AND  CARE  OF  APPARATUS  IN 

THE  GYMNASIA  IN  THOMPSON  BUILDING 
To  Instructors  in  Practice  Work: 

The  proper  use  and  care  of  gymnastic  apparatus  is  very  important. 
There  is  no  reason  at  any  time  for  neglect  of  the  generally  accepted 
methods  of  use.  The  following  improper  practices  have  been  observed. 
They  should  be  discontinued. 

1.  Tying  knots  in  the  long  ropes.  This  destroys  the  end  of  the 
rope  and  requires  complete  replacement. 

•  2.    Running  on  the  track  with  street  shoes.   This  breaks  the  canvas 

of  the  track  and  will  destroy  the  covering. 

3.  Riding  apparatus.    The  use  of  buck  horse,  etc.,  in  this  way 

frequently  results  in  damage  to  side  walls  and  other  apparatus. 

4.  Kicking  balls  in  the  gymnasium.    Aside  from  damage  to  balls 

not  made  for  kicking  use,  the  breakage  of  lamps  and  windows 
should  not  be  courted. 

5.  Dragging  mats  over  floor.   The  problem  of  keeping  a  gymnasium 

clean  and  fit  for  use  by  women  as  well  as  men,  by  girls  as  well 
as  boys,  is  a  serious  one.  The  mats  are  with  difficulty  kept 
clean.  The  practice  of  dragging  the  mats  over  the  floor  should 
therefore  cease.  The  proper  way  to  handle  the  mat  is  to  roll 
and  carry  it  to  the  apparatus. 

Supervisor. 

*  Manheimer,  W.  A.     "Floor  Oil  as  a  Dust  Preventive."     American  Physical  Education 
Review,  1914,  pp.  625-631. 


142  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

d.  Care  of  apparatus.  All  apparatus  should  be  kept 
clean.  Iron  bars  rust  easily.  They  can  be  brightened 
with  emery  paper  or  steel  wool.  Straps  and  leather 
attachments  need  renewal  frequently.  Rolling  apparatus 
should  be  examined  to  see  that  casters  work  properly. 

Mats  are  frequently  not  cared  for  as  they  should  be. 
In  order  to  avoid  the  dust  and  dirt  that  collects  on  and 
in  mats  it  is  the  practice  in  some  gymnasia  to  paint  the 
mat  with  an  elastic  paint.  This  method  is  not  to  be 
recommended  because  it  does  not  strike  at  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  dirty  mat,  namely  the  dirty  gymnasium 
floor,  and  further,  it  gives  a  slippery  surface  to  the  mat 
thus  rendering  it  less  useful  for  gymnastic  purposes.  In 
addition,  the  paint  in  time  cracks  and  comes  off  in  places 
and  the  result  is  distinctly  unfavorable. 

This  problem  should  be  attacked  under  three  heads: 

(1)  Keep  the  floor  of  the  gymnasium  free  from  dust 
and  dirt. 

(2)  Do  not  drag  the  mats  over  the  floor.    The  mats 
should  be  rolled  and  carried  to  the  apparatus  and  returned 
in  similar  fashion  to  the  side  of  the  gymnasium  after  use. 

(3)  Clean  the  mats  weekly  by  sweeping  with  a  stiff 
broom.    During  vacations,  the  mats  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  with  a  vacuum  machine. 

The  construction,  installation,  and  care  of  the  spring 
board  in  the  pool  is  very  important.  Illustrations  of  and 
descriptive  measurements  for  the  official  intercollegiate 
diving  board  are  given  in  the  Intercollegiate  Swimming 
Guide.* 

Cleanliness  of  the  air  of  the  gymnasium  is  very  impor- 
tant. The  chief  sources  of  contamination  are  the  dust 
from  the  floor  and  apparatus  and  the  exhalation  and 
perspiration  of  persons  using  the  gymnasium.  Therefore 

*  Intercollegiate  Swimming  Guide.     Spalding's  Athletic  Library.     Group  IX.     No.  361. 
American  Sports  Publishing  Company,  21  Warren  St.,  N.  Y. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  143 

the  administrative  control  should  be  directed  to  secure 
freedom  from  dust  and  dirt  on  the  one  hand  and  free 
circulation  on  the  other. 

At  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College  at  Springfield,  recirculation 
of  air  is  used.  The  chief  advantages  of  this  method 
seem  to  be  a  saving  in  cost  of  heating  the  gymnasium  in 
winter.  Dr.  McCurdy  writes,  "We  have  saved  about 
40  per  cent  on  heat  bills,  and  have  had  the  air  purer  than 
outdoor  air  under  country  conditions  except  immediately 
after  a  rainstorm." 

Proper  ventilation  of  the  gymnasium  is  more  often  the 
exception  than  the  general  practice.  For  most  gymnasia 
it  will  be  found  satisfactory  to  ventilate  with  open 
windows.  Outdoor  air  is  the  best  air  in  most  cases.  It 
may  be  given,  therefore,  as  a  rule  that  in  summer,  spring, 
and  fall,  the  windows  of  the  gymnasium  should  be  open. 
They  should  open  at  the  top  and  give  cross  ventilation 
above  the  working  surface  of  the  floor. 

In  the  winter,  unless  in  very  mild  climates,  it  is  not 
desirable  to  work  in  a  temperature  below  55°  F.  Some 
would  set  the  minimum  at  60°  F.  Certainly  60°  F.  is 
not  too  high  and  55°  F.  may  be  low.  This  applies  for 
classes  using  the  traditional  gymnastic  costumes.  What 
may  be  advised  under  a  plan  that  would  provide  appro- 
priate clothing  for  the  colder  temperatures,  must  be 
delayed.  It  would  seem  feasible  and  desirable  to  conduct 
winter  classes  all  winter  out  of  doors,  using  appropriate 
clothing  and  closing  the  period  with  a  change  of  clothing 
and  the  usual  shower.  Such  a  plan  would  have  many 
values. 

Standards  of  cleanliness  for  the  gymnasium  should 
include  not  only  the  air,  the  apparatus,  and  the  building 
itself,  but  also  the  persons  using  the  gymnasium.  It  is 
not  an  unusual  observation  to  see  the  high  school  or 
college  youth  exercising  in  clothing  that  is  frankly  unclean. 


144  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

A  splendid  administrative  plan  for  controlling  this  factor 
has  been  worked  out  by  Dr.  Thomas  A.  Storey,  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  The  main  features  of  his  plan 
are: 

a.  Instruction  in  hygiene 

b.  Inspection  of  suits  and  towels 

c.  Enforcement    of    regulations    requiring    frequent 
change  in  clothing  and  towels. 

4.  Towels  and  soap.  A  study  of  comfort  stations  by 
Dr.  Armstrong*  showed  that  the  use  made  of  washing 
facilities  depend  upon  the  sanitary  equipment  of  the 
lavatory.  In  stations  supplied  with  hot  water,  soap,  and 
towels,  a  greater  number  washed  their  hands  than  in 
stations  supplied  only  with  cold  water. 

From  an  administrative  standpoint  the  director  of  a 
gymnasium  will  secure  better  cooperation  in  maintaining 
good  standards  of  cleanliness  by  making  it  convenient 
and  easy  to  obtain  soap  and  towels. 

The  distribution  of  soap  for  showers  and  bath  may  be 
done  easily  by  installing  a  soap  vending  machine.  A  type 
put  out  by  the  Palm  Olive  Company  sells  a  cake  of  Palm 
Olive  soap  for  one  cent.  Liquid  soap  or  soap  powder  may 
be  provided  free  of  cost.  A  good  brand  of  liquid  soap  is 
manufactured  by  Eli  Lily  Chemical  Company,  Indian- 
apolis, Indiana.  This  soap  is  comparatively  free  from 
irritation.  Soap  dispensed  in  powdered  form  from  con- 
tainers is  usually  so  hard  that  the  waste  is  considerable 
and  also  it  lathers  with  difficulty.  Common  soap  boxes 
in  which  users  of  the  gymnasium  place  their  cakes  after 
bathing  should  not  be  allowed. 

The  towel  situation  may  be  handled  in  two  ways.  One 
way  provides  clean  towels  for  the  students  without  charge. 
This  is  expensive.  The  other  way  provides  clean  towels 

*  Armstrong,  D.  B.     Comfort  Stations  in  New  York  City.     New  York  Association  for 
Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor.     Publication  80.     New  York  City. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  145 

at  a  small  price.  In  large  cities  towel  concerns  will 
furnish  and  launder  towels  at  a  rate  that  makes  the  cost 
of  a  clean  towel  very  small.  This  system  was  installed 
at  the  University  of  Cincinnati  gymnasium.  The  admin- 
istrative plan  involved  the  services  of  the  janitor  and  a 
clerk  in  the  office.  A  towel  ticket  provided  for  fifteen 
towels  and  sold  for  twenty-five  cents.  When  a  student 
desired  a  clean  towel  he  returned  the  soiled  one  and  the 
janitor  punched  the  ticket  when  he  gave  out  the  towel. 
A  deposit  of  twenty-five  cents  is  required  to  cover  the 
charge  on  the  towel  given  out  the  first  time.  The  plan 
offered  clean  towels  to  the  students  at  a  nominal  cost  and 
without  expense  to  the  university. 

5.  Drinking  water.  Clean  and  palatable  drinking 
water  is  a  necessity  in  the  equipment  of  the  gymnasium 
and  playground;  only  sanitary  fountains  should  be 
used  (5). 

Administration  of  city  recreation. — In  larger  cities 
there  are  usually  two  or  more  bodies  concerned  in  the 
government  of  recreation.  The  different  methods  of 
control  and  the  reasons  favoring  each  method  are 
presented  in  a  summary  by  Arthur  Williams*  of  the 
Playground  and  Recreation  Association.  His  report 
follows: 

The  administration  of  city  recreation  is  carried  on  by  park  boards, 
school  boards,  playground  and  recreation  commissions,  and  other 
municipal  departments  and  private  agencies.  In  some  communities  the 
formulation  and  execution  of  the  recreation  program  is  in  the  hands  of 
one  agency;  in  most  communities  there  are  many  agencies.  The 
present  tendency  is  to  coordinate  all  the  recreation  activities  of  the  city 
under  one  administrative  body  with  legal  standing  in  the  community 
and  with  adequate  funds  appropriated  by  the  municipality. 

There  have  been,  however,  slight  differences  of  opinion  as  to  what 
municipal  department  should  be  entrusted  with  this  work — the  school 
boards,  the  park  board,  or  a  recreation  commission. 

*  Williams,  Arthur.  Administrative  Phases  of  Play  and  Recreation.  Playground  and 
Recreation  Association.  1  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  City. 


146  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  school  board  or  board  of  education  is  favored  by 
some  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  The  value  of  play  is  educational;    hence  it 
should  be  under  the  control  of  those  who  administer 
the  city's  education. 

2.  It  already  has  charge  of  the  physical  education 
of  the  school  children. 

3.  The  educational  authorities  have  a  large  corps 
of  teachers  with  the  knowledge  of  education  and 
experience  in  handling  children  that  is  necessary  to 
playground  workers. 

4.  The  teacher's  personal  contact  with  the  chil- 
dren on  the  playground  is  beneficial  to  the  school. 

5.  The  character  and  ideals  of  the  teachers  under 
the  school  board  are  on  a  much  higher  plane  than 
those  of  the  employees  of  the  park  department. 

The  advocates  of  the  park  department's  control  of 
recreation  point  with  pride  to  the  results  accomplished 
by  the  separate  park  commission  of  Chicago  and  the 
Cincinnati  Park  Board.  The  Chicago  Commission  has 
a  separate  taxing  power  granted  it  by  the  legislature 
and  has  no  legal  connection  with  the  city  government.* 
This  removes  the  members  of  these  boards  from  com- 
petition with  the  other  cities'  departments  when  the  yearly 
tax  levies  are  apportioned.  Other  park  boards,  when  a 
cut  in  their  appropriation  is  threatened  or  actually  made, 
are  tempted  to  make  the  playground  or  the  recreation 
phase  of  their  work  bear  the  brunt  of  the  decrease.  And 
the  trend  of  affairs  at  present  is  to  centralize  taxing  power. 

The  Cincinnati  Park  Board  and  several  others  have 
carried  on  successful  playground  work  because  of  the 
strong  boards  appointed  and  the  consistent  support  of 
the  public. 

The  great  majority  of  recreation  workers  to-day,  how- 

*  Recently  the  parks  have  been  taken  over  by  the  Board  of  Education. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  147 

ever,  feel  that  because  of  the  varied  kinds  of  activities 
which  it  is  necessary  for  an  effective  administrative  body 
to  carry  on  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  separate  body  for 
this  work  in  which  can  be  coordinated  all  the  playground 
and  recreation  work  of  the  city,  including  the  supervision 
of  commercial  amusements.  A  few  of  the  arguments  ad- 
vanced by  those  in  favor  of  this  form  of  administration  are : 

1.  The  members  of  recreation  commissions  are 
selected  with  thought  of  recreation  in  mind.    Other 
boards  are  selected  primarily  for  other  purposes  and 
usually  are  already  loaded  with  other  work. 

2.  The  large  budget  of  school  boards  are  con- 
stantly being  cut  and  this  reduction  is  likely  to  be 
taken  from  the  recently  started  recreation  movement. 

3.  Thus  far  the  creation  of  a  separate  recreation 
commission  has  not  meant  an  increase  in  political 
influence  in  recreation  work. 

4.  Because  playgrounds  are  popular  it  is  easier  to 
secure  adequate  appropriations  for  recreation  in  the 
beginning  if  the  appropriation  for  playgrounds  and 
recreation  is  not  confused  with  larger  appropriations, 
including  boulevards,  industrial  education,  etc. 

5.  A  separate  commission  can  more  readily  be 
held  responsible. 

6.  A  recreation  commission  is  more  likely  to  keep 
the  recreation  interests  prominently  before  the  com- 
munity. 

7.  By  the  creation  of  a  recreation  commission  it 
is  usually  possible  to  make  official  the  services  of 
important  public  spirited  citizens  who  have  been  at 
the  center  of  the  movement  in  its  initial  stages.    The 
recreation  secretary  needs  the  hearty  support  of  such 
a  group  of  citizens. 

8.  A  recreation  commission,  giving  representation 
to  the  school  board,  the  park  board-  or  other  bodies 


148  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

should  enable  the  city  to  make  effective  use  of  all 
resources  known  to  these  various  agencies,  making 
possible  a  strong  united  recreation  work. 

9.  A  special  committee  appointed  by  the  Play- 
ground and  Recreation  Association  of  America  to 
study  the  question  of  administration  found  that  the 
cities  having  commissions  were  on  the  whole  better 
satisfied  with  this  form  of  administration  than  cities 
having  other  forms  of  control.  Ten  out  of  thirteen 
commission  correspondents  favored  commissions  con- 
trol. Seven  out  of  thirteen  park  board  writers 
favored  commission  control  of  some  form.  This 
committee  reported: 

It  is  fair  to  conclude  that  in  cities  where  the  interest  is  greatest, 
the  problems  most  varied,  and  the  movement  furthest  developed, 
the  distinct  tendency  is  toward  the  commission  idea, — playground 
or  recreation  commissions  composed  ^of  people  haying  an  appre- 
ciation of  both  the  park  and  school  ideals,  but  with  a  social  in- 
sight that  permits  a  deeper  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  leisure 
from  the  standpoint  of  civic  righteousness  and  efficient  citizenship 
and  the  physical  and  moral  welfare  of  the  race. 

Management  of  playground. — The  success  of  the  play- 
ground movement  has  been  due  to  a  group  of  well  trained 
men  and  women  in  thorough  sympathy  with  the  ideals 
of  play  and  also  to  certain  well  defined  principles  of 
management  which  have  grown  out  of  the  experience  of 
playground  workers.  The  varied  questions  of  attendance, 
program,  personality  of  play  leader,  rules  of  the  play- 
ground, have  been  at  times  the  rock  upon  which  many  a 
playground  venture  has  been  wrecked.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  in  the  management  of  a  playground  to  be  able 
to  give  the  answers  to  questions  that  may  vitally  relate 
to  management.  Thus,  if  there  is  a  falling  off  in  atten- 
dance, the  administrator  wishes  to  know  the  answers  to 
the  following  questions: 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  149 

1.  Is  this  decrease  due  to  the  narrowness  of  the 
play  program  and  a  failure  to  coordinate  with  other 
compelling  and  vital  interests  in  the  community? 

2.  Is  the  program  of  activities  at  fault? 

3.  Have  the  rules  been  so  rigid  that  we  have 
driven  people  away  to  freer  opportunities,  or  have 
the  rules  been  so  lax  that  discontent  and  dissatis- 
faction have  broken  down  our  groups? 

4.  Has  the  personality  of  the  play  leaders  been  of 
the  sort  that  would  encourage  or  discourage  atten- 
dance? 

5.  Is  our  program  of  activities  known  in  the  com- 
munity or  do  we  need  propaganda? 

6.  Has  the  work  been  indifferent  and  therefore 
not  worth  attention? 

The  six  questions  above  will  be  discussed  hi  detail  in 
the  following  sections: 

Community  life 

Faults  in  play  programs 

Rules 

Personality  for  play  leadership 

Advertising  the  playground 

Quality  in  playground  work 

1.  Community  life.  The  experiments  of  the 
social  unit  organization  (6)  in  the  Mohawk  section 
of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  Dr.  Armstrong's  (7)  at 
Framingham,  Mass.,  serve  to  show  that  playground 
work  of  the  stereotyped  program  that  provides  only 
play  forms,  is  not  meeting  the  needs  of  the  commu- 
nity. The  recent  incorporation  of  Community  Service 
^as  an  outgrowth  of  War  Camp  Community  Service, 
f  is^  an  effort  to  provide  for  the  community  a  richer 
program  than  that  supplied  in  the  usual  playground 
and  recreation  center.)  (The  work  of  the  program  has 
been  concerned  with  summer  playgrounds  and  evening 


150  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

recreation  centers.  It  is  important  to  point  out  that 
superintendents  have  not  been  interested  enough  in 
fostering  and  developing  community  pageants,  sing- 
ing and  drama,  neighborhood  picnics,  parties  and 
entertainments  meeting  neighborhood  needs.* 

The  Playground  (8)  suggests  the  remedy  for  the 
narrowness  of  the  program  as  follows: 

The  people  of  the  communities having  tasted  of  the  joy 

there  is  in  working  together  (during  the  war)  for  mutual  interests 
and  in  playing  together,  are  ready  for  a  program  which  will  give 
them  social  contacts  with  their  neighbors  and  with  the  people 
from  other  parts  of  the  community  with  whom  they  did  not 
formerly  come  in  touch. 

Some  of  the  activities  to  be  added  to  the  usual 
playground  program  are 

Vacant  lot  play 

Coasting,  skating,  skiing,  and  other  winter  sports 

Block  parties 

Community  picnics 

Neighborhood  dances  and  parties 

Community  and  special  holiday  celebrations 

Festivals  and  pageants 

Community  singing 

Choruses 

Band  concerts 

Community   opera,    drama,    art,    forums,    and 

recreation  houses 

2.  Faults  in  play  programs.  Play  programs  fail 
because  they  become  too  stereotyped  and  set. 
Frequently  the  effort  to  accomplish  some  formal 
health  end,  or  to  arouse  some  social  response  that  is 
not  natural  and  expressive  of  the  community  causes 
the  difficulty.  The  organization  and  administration 
of  welfare  work  during  the  war  gave  experiences  that 

*  An  excellent  little  pamphlet,  Comrades  in  Play,  published  by  Community  Service,  Inc., 
1  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  City. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  151 

have  importance  for  peace  time  programs.  The  rec- 
reation department  of  a  city  system  must  coordi- 
nate all  the  facilities  of  community  recreation.'  It 
should  use  swimming  pools  and  gymnasia  of  Y.M.C.A. 
and  Y.W.C.A.,  halls  of  fraternal  orders,  auditoriums, 
churches,  women's  clubs,  and  civic  organizations. 

It  is  a  very  important  part  in  his  work,  therefore,  to  be  closely 
in  touch  with  these  agencies,  rendering  them  all  the  service  which 
a  public  recreation  department  can  offer,  and  seeing  to  it  that 
the  facilities  of  the  department  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
private  groups. 

The  program  of  the  playground  varies  according 
to  many  factors.  School  yards,  outdoor  playgrounds, 
roof  playgrounds,  evening  recreation  and  community 
centers,  recreation  piers  or  boats,  public  baths,  will 
offer  different  opportunities.  School  yard  activities 
will  not  be  so  comprehensive  in  scope  as  a  playground 
providing  for  adults'  recreation. 

A  typical  play  program  of  a  New  York  City  play- 
ground follows: 

1.00-1.30  Assembly,  salute  flag,  singing,  talk  by  principal 
1.30-2.30  Organized  games  in  gymnastics  and  kindergarten 
2.30-3.00  Organized  free  play 
3.00-4.00  Military  and  gymnastic  drills,  folk  dances,  apparatus 

work 

4.00-4.45  Organized  team  games  (basketball,  indoor  baseball) 
4.45-5.15  Athletics 
5.15-5.30  Marching,  singing,  dismissal 

Children  are  sent  in  groups  to  the  library  and  game 
room. 

The  above  program  is  that  of  the  usual  play  form. 
It  does  not  represent  all  that  should  be  done  in  an 
organization  awake  to  community  needs  and  the 
possibilities  of  community  action.  A  more  compre- 
hensive plan  is  being  developed  in  Michigan. 


152  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

A  program  of  the  Michigan  Community  Council 
Commission  as  proposed  by  Miss  Nina  B.  Lamkin, 
Director  of  Pageantry  and  Recreation,  and  recom- 
mended for  Highland  Park,  Detroit,  Mich.,  is  sug- 
gestive of  the  newer  developments  in  the  field.  After 
a  survey  of  the  existing  agencies  at  Highland  Park 
the  f  ollowing  program  was  recommended  and  adopted. 

1.  Pending  the  development  and  completion  of  permanent 
plans  to  include  a  recreational  building,  permanent  sectional 
center,  and  a  system  of  municipal  playgrounds,  immediate  steps 
should  be  taken  to  provide  more  adequate  facilities  for  the  present 
needs  of  the  people  to  include: 

a.  A  recreational  field  for  the  coming  summer  which  shall  be 
provided  with — 

(1)  A  baseball  diamond 

(2)  Tennis  courts 

(3)  Basketball  court 

(4)  VoUey  ball  court 

(5)  Space  for  group  games  and  athletics 

6.  A  number  of  smaller  recreation  fields  or  neighborhood 
playgrounds,  distributed  to  serve  districts  of  six  or  eight  blocks. 

c.  Further  use  of  school  buildings  for  evening  clubs,  parties, 
etc.,  or  the  use  of  other  buildings  that  could  be  made  available  as 
community  meeting  places  for  various  activities. 

d.  The  adequate  supervision  of  all  such  places  which  are  made 
available  for  recreation  purposes  in  order  that  the  best  results 
may  be  realized. 

e.  This  supervision  to  be  in  the  hands  of  well  equipped  persons 
who  have  the  ability  to  plan  and  carry  out  a  program  of  activities 
which  shall  reach  all  age  groups  and  which  shall  be  worth  while 
from  the  standpoint  of  health,  play,  and  citizenship. 

2.  Recommended  that  immediate  action  be  taken  to  secure 
such  available  properties  as  are  necessary. 

3.  Recommended  that  a  municipal  program  be  planned  which 
will  be  in  cooperation  with  the  schools  of  Highland  Park,  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  the  Ford  Motor  Company. 

4.  Recommended  that  funds  be  provided. 

5.  Recommended  that  the  personnel  of  this  recreation  depart- 
ment for  the  summer  of  1920  be: 

a.  A  superintendent  of  recreation  who  shall  be  a  m^n  expert 
who  can  manage  the  executive  work,  who  can  see  the  possibilities 
for  expanding  the  program,  and  who  can  definitely  guide  the 
steps  in  the  development  of  the  program. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  153 

6.    A  director  who  shall  be  a  woman  expert  to  cany  out  definite 
activities  in — 

(1)  Club  work  for  boys  and  girls 

(2)  Club  work  for  factory  girls 

(3)  Dramatics  for  different  age  groups,  as 

Story  telling  classes 
Dramatization  of  stories 
Programs  centered  around  the  arts 
One  act  plays 

(4)  Musical  projects  in  choruses,  orchestra,  and  band  work  in 
cooperation  with  local  musical  agencies  and  led  by  local  leaders. 

(5)  Bringing  together  the  various  group  activities  into  com- 
munity days,  such  as 

Festival 
Pageant 
Carnival 
Tournament 

(6)  Enlarging  work  already  being  done  by  local  recreation 
agencies. 

6.  Recommended  that  the  small  neighborhood  playgrounds 
be  equipped  at  least  with  a  playground  box. 

7.  Recommended  that  the  man  and  woman  expert,  conduct 
leaders'  classes  in  recreation. 

8.  Recommended  that  compensation  be  given  local  leaders 
who  can  take  responsibility,  this  to  be  a  nominal  sum  but  suffi- 
cient to  make  them  leaders  of  volunteer  leaders. 

9.  Recommended  for  the  summer  of  1920  the  following 
activities: 

Hiking  clubs 

Rowing  clubs 

Swimming 

Tennis  clubs 

Volley  ball  groups 

Baseball  series 

Roller  skating 

Athletics,  etc. 

Story  telling,  dramatization,  and  short  plays,  etc.,  for 

rainy  days 

That  for  the  winter  season  the  activities  of  these  groups  be 
continued  in  such  forms  as: 

Children's  dancing  parties 

Adult  dancing  parties 

Folk  dancing  for  different  age  groups 

Special  community  programs  for  the  special  days,  such  as 

Hallowe'en 

Thanksgiving 

Christmas 


154  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Americanization  classes 

Sewing  classes 

Conversational  classes 

Reading  clubs 

Forums,  etc. 

Indoor  tournaments  in 
Volley  ball 
Basketball 
Quoits,  etc. 

Game  evenings 

Ice  skating  and  ice  games 

In  planning  the  program  it  is  essential  to  know  what  people 
want  and  to  provide  the  channels  through  which  they  may  find 
expression  in  the  way  that  will  mean  most  to  them  individually. 
Have  a  well-rounded  program;  do  not  overemphasize  dancing 
to  the  exclusion  of  wholseome  games  and  activities.  The  educa- 
tional program  should  include  subjects  that  are  vital  and  in 
keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  There  should  be  great 
emphasis  on  the  part  of  the  program  which  involves  cultural 
interests.  The  centers  should  be  made  as  attractive  as  possible 
and  should  be  well-lighted  and  well-advertised.  Introduce  new 
features  and  draw  out  the  talent  which  is  in  the  people  them- 
selves. Secure  from  outside  the  best  talent  available.  Emphasize 
in  your  centers  as  in  the  community  activities  the  things  which 
give  people  an  opportunity  to  make  contacts  which  they  otherwise 
would  not  make. 

3.  Rules.  The  rules  may  be  too  rigid  or  too  lax. 
The  following  suggested  set  of  rules  by  Mr.  R.  L. 
Quigley,  Superintendent  of  Playgrounds,  Fresno, 
California,  is  suggestive  of  good  standards  in  this 
respect. 

1.    Control f  management,  and  upkeep 

Supervisors  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Playground  Commis- 
sioners will  have  direct  charge  of  all  activities  conducted  on  the 
playgrounds.  Supervisors  will  receive  instructions  from  and  be 
responsible  to  the  superintendent. 

On  playgrounds  where  there  is  a  division  of  play  space,  boys 
and  girls  must  play  in  their  respective  spaces  only. 

A  caretaker  will  on  certain  days  (about  every  other  day)  do 
the  necessary  cleaning,  sweeping,  and  dusting;  said  caretaker  to 
report  and  receive  his  instructions  from  the  head  supervisor  of 
each  ground.  The  supervisor  shall  see  to  it  that  the  caretaker 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  155 

attends  to  business  at  all  times  and  reports  any  neglect  of  duty 
to  the  superintendent.  Supervisor  should  encourage  the  children 
to  keep  the  grounds  in  a  neat  and  tidy  condition.  All  papers  and 
other  rubbish  should  be  picked  up  each  evening  before  leaving. 

Permit  no  fence  climbing. 

Allow  no  climbing  on  buildings. 

Allow  no  tree  climbing. 

Allow  no  one  to  enter  buildings  or  rooms  other  than  those  pro- 
vided for  playground  use,  and  then  only  when  a  director  is  in 
charge. 

Do  not  permit  the  rough  use  of  furniture  or  house  fixtures. 

Do  not  allow  loafing  in  toilets. 

Do  not  allow  vulgar  language  or  the  use  of  tobacco  or  liquor 
on  grounds. 

Have  all  pencil  or  chalk  writing  immediately  erased. 

Do  not  permit  children  on  grounds  before  or  after  playground 
hours. 

See  that  all  windows,  doors,  and  gates  are  closed  and  locked 
before  leaving  playground. 

Do  not  lose  the  keys. 

If  a  window  is  broken,  report  same  to  playground  office  before 
leaving  the  playground;  report  immediately  if  break  is  serious. 
If  window  is  broken  outside  of  playground  hours  make  a  special 
note  of  same.  Keep  a  record  of  all  broken  windows. 

Report  immediately  to  playground  office  any  serious  defects  in 
plumbing. 

See  that  all  toilets  are  flushed  each  night  before  leaving. 

2.     Use  of  apparatus  and  supplies 

The  proper  use  of  playground  apparatus  by  patrons  should  be 
insisted  upon  by  the  supervisor. 

Do  not  permit  dangerous  feats. 

Do  not  permit  small  children  on  apparatus  other  than  that 
which  is  intended  for  them. 

Show  the  children  how  to  get  on  and  off  the  see-saws. 

Allow  no  pushing  of  each  other  on  giant  stride  ropes. 

Prevent  extreme  high  swinging. 

Allow  no  one  to  crawl  or  walk  out  on  gym-frame  across  pipes. 

Permit  no  running  up  slide  beds;  insist  on  the  use  of  steps. 

Insist  upon  children's  taking  their  turn. 

Permit  no  use  of  faulty  apparatus;  report  same  immediately 
to  office. 

Do  not  permit  children  to  kick  volley  ball  or  basketballs; 
the  football  is  made  to  kick. 

Keep  all  inflated  balls  tight  and  well  laced — you  will  find  they 
will  last  much  longer. 

Do  not  let  the  balls  get  wet;  it  ruins  them. 


156  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

When  giving  out  supplies  to  children,  hold  one  person  respon- 
sible and  make  this  same  person  return  this  material;  then 
responsibility  can  be  placed  in  case  of  loss. 

Check  up  supplies  each  evening.  In  case  of  loss  put  the  matter 
up  to  the  children  in  such  a  way  as  to  convince  them  that  the  loss 
is  their  loss. 

Use  and  care  for  supplies  as  though  personally  responsible  for 
buying  them  and  paying  for  losses. 

Use  of  tennis  courts  will  not  be  permitted  in  cases  where  the 
participants  are  using  shoes  with  hard  heels. 

3.  Accidents. 

In  case  of  serious  accident  on  the  ground,  have  injured  party 
removed  to  a  quiet,  cool  room  and  make  sure  there  is  plenty 
of  fresh  air.  Notify  parents  immediately.  Call  emergency 
hospital  for  ambulance.  While  ambulance  is  coming  see  if 
parents  have  a  family  physician  they  wish  to  call.  See  that  in- 
jured party  is  made  as  comfortable  as  possible.  Do  not  attempt 
to  apply  remedy  when  injury  is  a  case  for  the  physician.  Get 
name  and  address  of  the  injured  party  and  obtain  all  information 
in  detail  concerning  accident;  secure  names  of  several  witnesses. 
Make  record  of  same  and  report  immediately  to  office.  The  best 
way  to  avoid  accidents  is  not  to  stay  too  long  in  any  one  place, 
keep  eyes  and  ears  open,  and  attend  to  business.  The  first  duty  is 
to  look  after  the  welfare  of  the  children. 

4.  Hours  of  service 

Regular  working  hours  will  be  assigned  by  the  superintendent. 
Supervisors  must  be  on  their  ground  ready  for  work  ten  minutes 
before  the  gates  are  opened,  and  must  stay  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  after  closing  to  finish  all  reports,  put  supplies  and 
materials  away  and  securely  lock  all  windows  and  doors  and 
gates. 

Supervisors  must  be  on  time  and  shall  not  leave  their  play- 
ground during  working  hours  without  permission  from  office. 
In  case  of  accident  on  the  ground  one  of  the  supervisors  if 
necessary  may  take  injured  party  home.  In  this  case  the 
co-worker  shall  take  charge  of  all  activities  until  return  of  said 
worker. 

In  case  a  leave  of  absence  is  desired  permission  must  be  ob- 
tained from  the  office. 

In  case  of  absence  from  ground  on  account  of  sickness,  notify 
office  so  that  other  arrangements  may  be  made. 

Supervisors  violating  these  rules  subject  themselves  to  a  loss 
of  salary  or  dismissal  from  the  department  according  to  the 
offense. 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  157 

5.  Reports  and  records 

Certain  daily  records  of  attendance,  activities,  etc.,  must  be 
made  on  blank  furnished  for  this  purpose  and  turned  in  to  the 
main  office  as  called  for  below: 

WEEKLY  SCHEDULE       — Each  Saturady  for  following  week 
MONTHLY  ATTENDANCE — First  day  of  following  month 
MONTHLY  ACTIVITIES    — First  day  of  following  month 
SUPPLIES  RECEIVED      — First  day  of  following  month 
INVENTORY  — Taken  July  1st  and  August  30th 

All  reports  must  be  written  in  ink. 

6.  Wearing  apparel 

Supervisors  while  on  duty  must  present  a  neat  and  tidy 
appearance. 

Supervisors  to  make  a  success  of  their  work  must  enter  into 
the  games  and  plays  with  the  children.  A  certain  amount  of 
instruction  is  necessary.  To  do  this  properly  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  director  to  wear  a  special  uniform  which  will  permit 
of  strenuous  action  and  at  the  same  time  look  neat. 

Men  supervisors  shall  wear  an  all  gray  uniform  consisting  of 
soft  gray  shirt,  long  gray  trousers,  and  low  heel  shoes. 

4.  Personality  for  play  leadership.  The  superin- 
tendent or  principal  must  be  a  leader.  All  the  vital 
elements  in  personality  that  mark  the  leader  are  im- 
portant. Force,  spirit  of  fairness  and  cooperation, 
openmindedness,  thoroughness,  sympathy — these  are 
qualities  neededA 

The  secret  of  success  lies  in  leadership.  The  best  leaders  you 
can  secure  as  assistants  will  be  none  too  good  for  making  play- 
ground and  evening  recreation  center  activities  the  constructive 
vital  forces  they  should  be.  Leaders  of  recreation  centers  should 
be  real  folks,  with  the  gift  of  friendliness,  who  will  bring  to  their 
work  a  freshness,  a  vitality,  a  knowledge  of  people  and  sympathy 
with  them  which  will  vitalize  the  program.  There  must  be  a 
continual  process  of  education  for  your  workers — institutes  and 
conferences  which  will  keep  constantly  before  them  the  big 
purposes  of  the  work  as  well  as  the  machinery  necessary  for  carry- 
ing it  on.  It  is  important,  too,  that  volunteer  leaders  shall  be 
found  and  trained  so  that  group  activities  of  many  kinds  may  be 
carried  on.  Institutes  for  volunteer  leaders  have  been  tried  out 
successfully  in  a  number  of  cities  and  in  this  way  volunteer  play 
leaders  have  been  made  available  for  private  groups,  church 
parties,  and  other  functions. 


158  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

A  good  discussion  of  the  qualities  to  seek  in  the 
recreation  or  play  leader  is  given  in  Bulletin  103, 
The  Administration  of  an  Individual  Playground. 
Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of  America, 
1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

5.  Advertising  the  playground.  The  world  to-day 
is  awake  to  the  value  of  propaganda.  No  odious 
taint  should  attach  to  the  use  of  a  means  that  has 
been  turned  by  some  to  unscrupulous  ends.  The 
advertising  channels  available  should  be  used.  In 
this  connection  a  quotation  from  The  Playground  is 
pertinent: 

The  superintendent  of  recreation  and  his  governing  board  have 
a  very  distinct  responsibility  in  making  the  work  known  to  the 
community.  This  can  be  done  in  a  number  of  ways.  Posters  and 
newspaper  publicity  can  be  used  to  advantage;  superintendents 
and  members  of  the  governing  board  should  present  the  work  at 
meetings  of  civic  clubs  and  of  all  community  groups;  play  demon- 
stration as  a  means  of  bringing  the  work  before  the  community 
will  probably  be  found  more  effective  than  the  use  of  exhibits 
and  charts,  though  these  may,  in  some  instances,  be  advantage- 
ously used. 

The  most  successful  way  of  advertising,  however,  is  by  utilizing 
the  human  element  involved.  Do  your  advertising  through  the 
people  who  come  to  the  centers,  through  volunteers,  and  through 
committees,  as  for  example,  through  a  volunteer  group  at  each 
center  who  will  stand  back  of  work  in  their  neighborhood  and 
make  it  known  throughout  the  community. 

Private  agencies  and  groups  invited  to  use  the  facilities  at 
stated  times  will  constitute  a  good  publicity  nucleus.  Arrange 
special  occasions  for  women's  clubs,  civic  clubs,  and  others.  Get 
the  ministers  to  talking  about  the  work  from  their  pulpits  and  the 
school  people  advocating  it.  Reach  the  adults  through  the  school 
children  by  giving  them  notices  of  special  events  and  invitations 
to  take  home  to  their  parents.  Be  on  the  alert  for  every  oppor- 
tunity to  make  people  realize  what  it  will  mean  to  them  to  come 
together  as  neighbors. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  in  many  instances  the  difficulty 
of  securing  adequate  municipal  appropriation  has  made  it  im- 
possible to  carry  on  as  broad  a  program  as  the  need  of  the 
community  demands  or  as  the  recreation  department  wishes  to 


GYMNASIUM,  POOL,  AND  PLAYGROUND  159 

put  into  operation.  Unquestionably,  more  money  must  be  made 
available.  This  can  be  accomplished  only  by  the  best  possible 
demonstration  of  the  value  of  the  work  with  the  facilities  at 
hand;  by  a  steady  process  of  education  of  the  city  officials  whose 
province  it  is  to  determine  budgets,  and  of  the  citizens  of  the 
community.  If  public  opinion  is  solidly  behind  the  movement, 
if  the  citizens  really  want  public  recreation,  city  officials  will  find 
it  impossible  to  stand  out  against  the  demand. 

6.  Quality  in  playground  work.  The  character 
of  the  work  done  and  the  type  and  quality  of  the 
service  rendered  to  the  community  are  related  very 
largely  to  the  leading  and  assisting  force.  The 
director  and  assistants  are  the  playground.  It  is, 
therefore,  tremendously  important  to  secure  leaders 
of  excellent  training,  of  some  vision  and  imagination, 
and  of  real  enthusiasm  and  conviction  for  the  work. 
With  this  value  in  mind  Luther  H.  Gulick  once 
said,  "  We  are  organizing  people,  not  activities." 

Some  years  ago,  the  author  was  interested  in 
furthering  a  plan  in  one  of  our  largest  cities  to 
select  playground  attendants  and  leaders  by  an 
examination  in  which  personality  was  one  of  the 
elements  to  be  passed  upon.  Considerable  opposition 
to  this  movement  came  from  the  civil  service 
groups  as  a  natural  protest  against  a  scheme  which 
in  unscrupulous  hands  could  be  used  in  a  political 
machine  to  advance  political  adherents  or  to  degrade 
opponents.  Nevertheless,  it  represents  the  sort  of 
thing  that  needs  appreciation  and,  when  practica- 
ble, recognition  in  selecting  leaders  and  assistants. 

Quality  may  be  determined  in  part  by  equipment, 
finances,  or  other  physical  factors,  but  the  most 
important  factor  is  the  human  one  as  represented  in 
the  leader  and  assistants. 

NOTE — An  admirable  little  pamphlet,  Layout  and  Equipment  of  Playgrounds,  price  30 
cents,  may  be  secured  from  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of  America,  1 
Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 


160  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1 .  American  Association  for  Promoting  Hygiene  and  Public  Baths. 
Annual  Reports.   See  1915,  1916,  1917. 

Very  valuable  reports. 

2.  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health.     Sanitary  Control  of 

Swimming  Pools,  Annual  Report,  1913. 
An  exceedingly  interesting  and  helpful  report. 

3.  "Ultra  Violet  Ray  Sterilizer,"  American  Physical  Education 

Review,  February,  1917,  p.  114. 
WHITTAKER,  H.  A.    Journal  American  Medical  Association, 

June  22,  1918,  pp.  1901-1905. 
The  Bethlehem  Plan  of  Swimming  Pool,  The  Independent, 

October  2,  1916,  pp.  4&-47. 
Three  important  articles  dealing  with  water  purification  in 

swimming  pools. 

4.  RAVENAL.     "Hygiene  of  Swimming  Pools."   Journal  American 

Medical  Association,  October  19,  1913. 

A  good  article  directed  at  the  administrative  problem. 

International  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College,  Springfield,  Mass.  "  Ventila- 
tion Studies,"  December,  1913.  Reprinted  from  the  Ameri- 
can Physical  Education  Review. 

Studies  on  recirculation  of  air  in  the  gymnasium  at  Springfield. 

5.  Common  Drinking   Cups  and  Roller   Towels,   United   States 

Public  Health  Service,  Bulletin  No.  57. 
An  adequate  treatment  of  the  subject. 

6.  Social  Unit  Organization  Publications.    Social  Unit  Organiza- 

tion, Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Interesting  articles  on  an  exceedingly  interesting  social  experi- 
ment. 

7.  ARMSTRONG,   DONALD   B.    "The   Framingham   Health   and 

Tuberculosis  Demonstration."    Boston  Medical  and  Surgical 
Journal,  February  8,  1917. 

Demonstrates  that  health  needs  cannot  be  met  by  physical 
exercise  alone. 

8.  The  Playground,  October,  1919,  1  Madison  Ave.,  New  York 

City. 

An  excellent  magazine  for  this  field.  Complete  files  should  be 
consulted. 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

ATHLETICS 

Organization  and  administration  of  athletics. — The  time 
has  come  when  athlettesijn  school  and  college1  should  be 
organized  and  conducted  as  an  educational  project  and 
not  as  a  sideshow,   extra-curricular    affair,  or  student 
amusement  activity.    The  evils  of  professionalism,  high 
specialization,    and   proselytishi  are   only   the   natural 
results  of  a  program  that  is  guided  by  professional  rather J 
than  educational  aims.     There  is  no  attempt  here 
defend  play  or  point  out  the  value  of  athletics.    That  th( 
are!  important  and  valuable  for  the  child,  youth,  am 
adult  is  acknowledged  to-daywlhe  desire  at  this  poin^ 
is  to  indicate  the  type  of  organization  that  is  required  tq\ 
correct  the  evils  and  lead  to  a  program  of  athletic  educa- 
tion for  all. 

The  statement  of  the  educational  versus  the  pro- 
fessional in  athletics  has  been  well  made  by  Professor 
Savage  and  his  view  harmonizes  so  well  with  the  modern 
tendencies  in  education  that  the  greater  part  of  one  of 
his  extraordinary  papers  on  the  subject  is  given  here: 

During  the  past  ten  years  it  has  been  increasingly  borne  in  upon  me 
that  there  are  two  great  aspects  of  our  athletic  problem,  two  great 
tendencies,  which  I  roughly  characterize  as  the  professional  and  the 
educational.  In  the  early  years  of  college  athletics  in  America,  only 
their  recreational,  hygienic,  and  social  aspects  were  recognized.  In  a 
surprisingly  short  time,  owing  to  the  innate  love  of  sport  and  the  grow- 
ing intensity  of  athletic  rivalry  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  conservatism 
and  short-sightedness  of  educators  on  the  other,  we  find  strong  student 
athletic  associations  flourishing  and,  the  entire  control  of  college  ath- 

<*E£2Z2< 


162  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

letics  vested  in  these  associations.  These  organizations  rapidly  acquired 
great  power.  Young  and  inexperienced  student  managers  abused  this 
power  and  made  embarrassing  mistakes.  The  resultant  bickerings  and 
recriminations  became  so  tiresome  that  it  was  rightly  conceived  that 
continuity  and  experience  in  management  would  reduce  if  not  eliminate 
much  misunderstanding  and  friction.  This  more  efficient  management 
shaped  itself  into  what  is  now  commonly  called  the  graduate  man- 
agership. 

With  a  business  man  at  the  helm,  the  storms  and  perils  of  inter- 
collegiate strife  were  largely  dissipated  and  the  ship  of  sport  for  a  time 
sailed  smoother  seas.  College  faculties  breathed  more  easily,  believing 
that  the  threatening  clouds  of  athletic  trouble  had  been  dispelled. 

But  sports  well  managed  grew  in  popularity  both  with  the  students 
and  with  the  public.  The  graduate  manager  was  a  business  man,  and 
with  an  eye  to  business,  he  saw  that  good  gate  receipts  meant  better 
facilities,  more  equipment,  and  the  means  of  attaining  better  results. 
Better  results  to  the  students,  to  the  alumni,  to  the  graduate  manager, 
and  even  to  the  faculty,  meant  more  athletic  victories.  The  business 
man's  business  grew.  The  training  table,  the  training  quarters,  the 
return  of  the  star  graduates  to  help  coach,  the  high  salaried  professional 
coach,  magnificent  athletic  fields,  and  imposing  stadia  were  all  the  more 
possible  by  good  business  methods  and  by  the  skill  of  the  graduate 
manager  in  exploiting  the  loyalty  of  the  alumni.  But  the  Athletic 
Association  was  not  an  educational  body.  The  graduate  manager  was 
not  an  educator.  He  was  closer  to  the  alumni  than  the  faculty.  His 
great  enterprise  assumed  such  proportions,  and  its  exactions  on  the 
time  and  the  thought  of  the  students  became  so  heavy,  that  scholastic 
pursuits  were  considerably  interrupted. 

Here,  with  characteristic  conservatism,  college  authorities  came 
forward  with  a  harmless  prescription  of  faculty  control, — an  advisory 
athletic  committee,  composed  of  some  members  of  the  faculty  with 
sporting  proclivities,  a  proportion  of  real  sports  from  the  alumni,  and 
a  representation  of  undergraduates.  This  committee  advised  the 
graduate  manager  and  even  did  more,  but  the  graduate  manager  still, 
for  the  most  part,  had  his  own  way.  The  Athletic  Associations  have 
grown  into  corporations  and  now  hold  property  worth  millions, 
intercollegiate  sport  has  gradually  become  overspecialized  and  com- 
mercialized and  professionalized.  The  good  name  of  the  student 
athlete  has  often  been  smirched  by  proselyting  and  subsidizing,  and 
our  controversy  of  amateurism  vs.  professionalism  has  grown  ever  more 
insistent.  Now,  let  me  ask,  can  we  expect  professionalized  sport  to 
turn  out  amateur  sportsmen?  I  believe  that  college  and  university 
presidents  and  thinking  people  in  generav  who  have  the  courage  to 
face  the  situation  squarely  feel  with  Ex-President  Wilson  that  there  is 
real  danger  of  the  sideshows  becoming  more  important  than  the  mairir 
tent. 


ATHLETICS  163 

The  facts  of  the  case  are  that  there  is  little  or  no  justification  of  the 
present  status  of  intercollegiate  sport  as  a  legitimate  interest  in  an 
educational  system.  Some  of  you  will  say  that  it  needs  no  educational 
justification,  but  with  that  position  I  must  disagree.  Thanks  to  the 
influence  of  this  great  association,  and  of  the  zealous  and  indefatigable 
efforts  of  the  friends  of  good^  sport  working  through  local  conferences, 
the  conditions  surrounding  intercollegiate  sport  have  improved  tre- 
mendously in  late  years,  as  far  as  public  performances  and  external 
conditions  are  concerned.  But  we  have  not  gone  to  the  root  of  the 
matter.  We  are  industriously  pruning  and  trimming  the  athletic  tree, 
plucking  a  leaf  here  and  a  diseased  blossom  there;  but  we  hesitate  to 
lay  the  axe  to  the  root.  With  the  great  educational  and  moral  principles 
underlying  sport  and  with  the  question  of  amateurism  I  fear  we  are 
making  little  progress. 

Now  our  difficulties  in  both  those  respects  are  largely  due  to  one 
and  the  same  cause.  Under  existing  conditions  promising  young  ath- 
letes in  high  schools  and  academies  are  rounded  up  by  alumni  scout 
and  other  agencies,  they  receive  inducements  of  one  sort  or  another, 
in  many  cases  legitimate  and  in  many  other  cases  such  as  to  prostitute 
all  moral  integrity.  But  whether  right  or  wrong,  the  athlete  is  zealously 
sought  after  and  that  because  he  is  an  athlete.  If  possible  he  is  placed 
under  obligations  before  reaching  college,  he  is  even  steered  to  the  proper 
fitting  school  of  the  particular  college.  He  thus  enters  college  with  the 
wrong  idea  of  the  relative  importance  of  sport  and  study.  Once  in 
college  he  lives  in  an  athletic  atmosphere  that  is  commercialized  and 
professionalized.  He  joins  the  freshman  squad  and  his  training  is 
begun.  Neither  time  nor  expense  is  spared  to  fit  him  "to  deliver." 
He  is  promoted  to  the  varsity  squad.  With  professional  coaches  paid 
enormous  salaries  for  a  season's  work,  with  the  high  salaried  trainer  and 
his  retinue,  with  a  famous  old  grad  a  thousand  miles  away  summoned 
by  telegraph,  expenses  paid,  to  show  him  how  to  lengthen  his  punt  a 
couple  of  yards,  with  scouts  who  have  watched  every  game  of 
opposing  teams  throughout  the  season,  returning  for  the  week  prior  to 
meeting  this  or  that  opponent  and  coaching  how  to  meet  the  particular 
opponent's  play,  — with  trips  involving  three  or  four  days'  absence  from 
classes,  with  a  week  spent  at  the  seashore  or  mountains  away  from  the 
classroom — with  all  these  things  and  countless  others,  what  idea  of 
sport  is  the  student  to  get?  Is  it  sport  or  is  it  business,  a  pastime 
or  a  profession?  Is  it  more  important  than  studies  or  not?  That  our 
student  athletes  carry  themselves  as  well  as  they  do  under  these 
circumstances  is  a  tremendous  tribute  to  the  stuff  of  which  they  are 
made.  That  they  are  able  to  do  anything  with  their  studies  is  almost 
inconceivable,  yet  here  again  they  acquit  themselves  surprisingly  well. 
But  my  contention  is  that  the  whole  program  is  fundamentally  wrong. 
The  whole  scheme  is  professionalized.  Efficiency  is  developed  down  to 
the  minutest  detail.  No  captain  of  industry  or  corporation  board  of 


164  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

directors  could  map  out  a  plan  of  campaign  and  carry  it  out  with  greater 
efficiency.  The  coaches  and  managers  in  our  great  colleges  leave  no 
stone  unturned  that  victories  may  result.  Money  is  poured  out  like 
water.  The  student  players  are  mere  pawns,  a  band  of  picked  men 
trained  and  groomed  for  the  day  of  the  contest.  That  the  boys  like 
this  sort  of  thing  and  that  athletic  honors  are  coveted  is  neither  here 
nor  there. 

I  maintain  that  it  is  because  of  this  system  that  to-day,  in  spite  of 
multitudinous  rules  of  eligibility,  in  spite  of  gentlemen's  agreements, 
in  spite  of  quasi-faculty  control,  we  still  have  insistent  calls  for  rule 
revisions,  we  still  have  men  actually  hired  to  play  football  on  college 
teams,  we  still  have  men  competing  four  or  five  years,  we  still  have 
boys  lying  about  their  amateur  standing,  we  still  have  charges  made 
against  the  morality  of  intercollegiate  sport. 

That  our  great  universities  will  soon  change  their  methods  is  doubt- 
ful. But  eventually  reformation  if  not  revolution  must  come.  At  the 
present  time  the  trend  is  almost  entirely  in  the  other  direction.  Coaches 
who  can  "deliver  the  goods"  are  getting  higher  and  higher  salaries. 
Unsuccessful  coaches  must  go.  One  bad  season  is  enough.  Or  the 
coaching  system  is  at  fault  and  a  new  one  must  be  tried.  You  know  the 
ins  and  outs  of  the  entire  situation.  But  let  me  ask  you  a  question. 
Do  the  presidents  or  the  faculties  or  the  trustees  or  the  regents  have 
anything  to  say  in  these  matters?  Very  little.  You  may  say  that  the 
educational  authorities  should  have  nothing  to  do  with  these  matters. 
I  maintain  that  they  should  have  everything  to  do  with  them.  As  long 
as  the  students  are  in  an  educational  institution,  educators  should 
direct  and  control  all  the  educational  influences  to  which  they  are 
subjected,  and  that  too  in  such  a  way  that  the  greatest  good  to  the 
greatest  number  may  result. 

In  intercollegiate  athletics  undoubtedly  either  schedules  should  be 
greatly  cut  down  or  different  teams  should  be  sent  into  the  different 
games.  In  the  one  or  two  big  games  which  every  college  always  has  on 
its  schedule,  surely  the  best  team  should  represent  its  institution. 
But  on  such  great  days  there  should  be  no  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
faculty  to  maintain  college  appoint™  *nts.  The  day  should  be  a  holiday 
for  both  institutions.  The  one,  b<  th  students  and  faculty,  should  be 
the  guests  of  the  other.  Hospitality  both  before  and  after  the  game 
should  be  extended  and  received.  I  lay  special  emphasis  on  the  after- 
math, for  I  think  it  would  accrue  greatly  to  the  education  of  the  victors 
were  they  to  have  an  opportunity  to  learn  how  to  comport  themselves 
considerately  and  as  gentlemen  after  a  victory.  The  round  of  such  a 
day  of  pleasure  might  fittingly  end  in  a  great  athletic  rally  with  both 
teams  present  and  the  student  bodies  intermingling  as  friends.  It 
would  probably  eliminate  many  of  our  troubles  if  the  gate  receipts 
could  be  done  away  with  and  attendance  be  by  student  ticket  and  by 
invitation  only.  There  is  not  the  slightest  reason  why  a  sane  athletic 


ATHLETICS  165 

system  should  not  be  supported  by  endowment  or  by  a  student  athletic 
fee  and  athletics  be  run  on  a  carefully  prepared  budget.  The  sport 
itself  would  then  be  running  on  a  strictly  amateur  basis,  and  most  of 
our  evils  would  die  a  natural  death. 

The  professional  coaches  would  undoubtedly  give  place  to  men  of 
faculty  standing  on  the  staff  of  the  department  of  physical  education. 
The  practice  now  quite  common  in  the  Middle  West  of  hiring  the  foot- 
ball coach  for  the  entire  year  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  in  too 
many  instances  the  presence  of  the  coach  now  serves  only  to  increase  the 
stress  on  football.  He  is  constantly  "  sizing  up  "  and  working  with  his 
material  for  the  next  season,  he  has  them  practice  boxing  and  wrestling 
through  the  winter,  gives  a  number  of  talks  on  the  fine  points  of  the 
game  and  in  the  spring  calls  them  out  for  unseasonable  and  senseless 
"spring  practice."  "In  the  spring  a  young  man's  fancy  lightly  turns 
to  thoughts  of  "—football?  Well,  hardly ! 

Another  suggestion  would  be  to  schedule  intercollegiate  meets  be- 
tween departments  or  classes.  If  intercollegiate  games  are  good  for 
twenty-five  players  out  of  five  thousand  students,  why  not  good  for  a 
hundred  or  five  hundred?  Doubtless  many  other  and  better  suggestions 
could  be  made,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  serve  my  purpose. 

Professor  Savage*  has  presented  the  situation  with 
courage  and  clearness.  The  problems  in  organization 
are  to  be  met  only  when  an  educational  point  of  view  is 
maintained.  This  discussion  has  been  made  with  ref- 
erence to  college  athletics  because  the  impetus  for  a  change 
and  the  direction  of  the  movement  among  high  schools 
will  be  given  in  this  branch,  as  in  others,  by  the  college.** 

Extra-curricular  activities. — A  tendency  in  modern 
secondary  school  administration  is  to  organize  all  the  activ- 
ities of  the  school  that  have  not  traditionally  been  or 
become  a  part  of  the  curriculum  into  a  program  of  extra- 
curricular activities.  Included  are  the  school  newspaper, 
annual,  glee  club,  athletics,  band,  dramatics,  art  clubs, 
and  other  student  organizations.  This  organization  aims 
at  providing  in  the  school  a  recreational  director  who 
shall  take  over  the  immediate  administration  of  these 
student  activities,  for  coordination,  development,  and 

*  Savage,  W.  "  The  Educational  versus  the  Professional  in  Athletics."  American 
Physical  Education  Review.  April,  1915. 

**  The  action  of  the  college  presidents  of  the  smaller  New  England  colleges  in  the 
spring  of  1922,  augurs  favorable  developments. 


166  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

control.  There  are  advantages  to  be  gained  in  such  a 
program,  but  it  is  held  in  this  connection  that  play, 
games,  and  athletic  sports  are  so  vital  and  necessary  for 
all  students  that  they  should  be  kept  in  the  department 
of  physical  training  and  accorded  a  decent  and  respectful 
acceptance  into  the  curriculum.  Every  pupil  will  not 
play  a  musical  instrument,  nor  should  every  one  be 
expected  even  to  attempt  to  learn  the  technique  of  that 
art;  on  the  contrary,  because  of  the  great  laboratory- 
provided  by  games  and  sports  for  the  training  in  the  feel- 
ing and  will  elements  of  mind  which  form  the  great  basal 
foundation  of  human  social  behavior,  in  addition  to  their 
purely  physical  values,  games  and  athletics  for  all  should 
be  organized  as  a  part  of  the  education  that  the  youth  of 
America  are  to  receive. 

Professor  Dudley  of  Vanderbilt  University  says  (1), 
"The  athletic  field  is  one  of  the  greatest  laboratories  in  an 
institution  of  learning  for  developing  personal  honor, 
self-control,  and  courtesy."  The  school  or  college  that 
is  only  concerned  with  the  intellect  and  is  neglectful  of 
the  feeling  and  will  is  not  meeting  the  need  today  for 
training  in  character  and  citizenship. 
^  Administrative  problems  in  athletics. — Because  the 
athletic  field  is  the  richest  field  in  the  school  for  develop- 
ment of  strong  characters,  and  because  so  many  of  the 
evils  of  athletics  are  associated  with  the  coaching  sys- 
tem, it  is  important  to  consider  at  the  very  beginning  the 
coach  and  his  selection.  No  department  of  physical 
education,  no  faculty  committee  in  school  or  college  will 
measure  up  to  its  responsibilities  to  its  own  student  body 
at  least,  if  it  chooses  hastily  or  with  false  guides.  "The 
coach  has  more  influence  in  school  or  college  for  good  or 
ill  than  any  other  instructor." 

Who  shall  select  the  coach? — In  the  early  days  of  ath- 
letics in  the  American  college,  the  coach  was  chosen  by 


ATHLETICS  167 

the  athletic  association.  Later  on  the  influence  of  alumni, 
acting  through  committees  on  which  might  be  faculty 
representation,  became  the  dominant  force  in  making  the 
selection.  Today  the  voice  of  the  alumni  in  this  matter  is 
still  too  strong.  They  might  be  permitted  to  have  repre- 
sentation on  an  athletic  committee  which  is  concerned 
with  management  and  plans  for  games,  but  the  selection 
of  a  coach  belongs  to  the  faculty  alone,  because  as  Pro- 
fessor Dudley  says  : 

The  coach  has  more  influence  in  college  for  good  or  ill  than  any  other 
instructor  and,  therefore,  his  selection  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
The  selection  should  be  made  by  the  faculty,  through  a  committee, 
after  the  character  of  the  candidates  has  been  thoroughly  investigated. 
More  weight  should  be  given  to  character  than  to  anything  else.  He 
must  be  a  clean  man  in  every  way.  He  must  be  a  firm  believer  in  fair 
play,  honest  methods,  and  amateur  sport.  There  can  be  no  clean  sport 
with  an  unclean  coach.  As  is  the  coach  so  is  the  coached.  We  may  go 
further  and  say,  as  is  the  coach,  so  will  be  the  student  body/7 

' 


Qualifications  of  a  coach.  —  The  qualifications  of  a  coach 
of  football  or  any  of  the  athletic  games,  are  essentially 
no  different  from  those  to  be  sought  in  any  other  branch 
of  the  institution  of  learning.  The  instructor  in  athletics 
needs  to  be  judged  by  the  standards  of  character,  training, 
experience,  and  personality  that  continue  to  be  recog- 
nized when  choosing  an  instructor  in  English  or  chem- 
istry or  T\jh1ir».fl.1  literature.  rT-hft  itYvportance  of  selecting 
gnaftk.-ifi..inHina.fpH  by  Headmaster  Stearns' 


picture  of  the  possible  undesirable  influence  that  the 
coach  may  exert: 

Almost  without  exception  the  coach  is  actuated  primarily,  if  not 
solely,  by  the  desire  to  win.    And  in  my  experience  it  makes  little 
rLLFteEflm/^  ^hftf^AT  np  ^  nn  nmni  m  "I1  irj'i"f  ......  '"nfl1     His  power  on 

the  field  is  unlimited.  His  influence  over  the  boys  he  instructs  is 
tremendous.  His  word  is  law.  To  disobey  him  is  to  invite  ostracism 
or  dismissal  from  the  squad.  Often  he  is  vulgar  and  profane.  Some- 
times he  is  brutal.  Seldom  does  he  exhibit,  on  the  football  field  at 
least,  those  qualities  which  are  demanded  of  a  gentleman.  And  yet, 


168  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

with  all  these  deadly  influences  at  his  command,  he  is  allowed  the  utmost 
liberty  to  work  upon  the  plastic  characters  of  our  youth.  With  freedom 
from  all  wholesome  restraint,  he  is  permitted  to  sow  in  fertile  soil  those 
tares  which  in  their  later  growth  are  bound  to  choke  the  intellectual, 
moral,  and  spiritual  growth  of  our  boys  and  ruin  in  advance  the 
expected  harvest. 

The  qualifications  of  an  ideal  coach  (and  there  are 
such  coaches)  have  been  so  well  stated  by  Dr.  Meylan 
that  he  is  quoted  in  full  on  this  point: 

1.  Irreproachable    character.    This  is  absolutely    essential, 
because  of  the  tremendous  influence  that  a  coach  has  over  college 
students.    Educators  recognize  that  the  molding  of  the  character 
of  young  men  during  the  impressionable  years  of  undergraduate 
life  is  the  chief  function  of  a  college  education.    Educators  admit 
further  that  character  is  developed  mainly  through  the  activities, 
play,  and  social  relations  of  everyday  life.    It  is,  therefore,  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  college  athletic  coach  be  a  man  of 
high  ideals  and  unquestionable  character,  who  endeavors  to  make 
the  sport  of  which  he  has  charge  a  source  of  strength  to  the 
institution  as  a  whole  and  a  means  of  promoting  those  ends  for 
which  a  college  primarily  exists.   He  must  see  to  it  that  honorable 
conduct,  fair  play,  and  the  students'  obligations  to  the  educational 
standards  of  the  college  be  not  sacrificed  in  the  endeavor  to  gain 
athletic  victories. 

2.  Leadership  and  enthusiasm.    The  coach  must  be  a  natural 
leader,  capable  of  arousing  enthusiasm  and  winning  the  respect, 
confidence,  and  support  of  the  students. 

3.  Knowledge  of  technique  and  ability  to  impart  his  knowl- 
edge to  others.    The  ability  to  teach  football,  baseball,  running, 
or  rowing,  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  the  ability  to  perform 
well  in  these  sports.    There  are  many  excellent  performers,  some 
good  teachers,  but  very  few  who  combine  both  qualities.    Ability 
to  teach  is  absolutely  essential  for  a  good  coach;  ability  to  per- 
form well  is  desirable,  but  not  essential. 

4.  Keen  powers  of  observation,  and  common  sense,  which  im- 
plies ability  to  size  up  the  latent  qualities  of  candidates  for  teams. 
This  is  a  rare,  but  exceedingly  valuable  qualification.    The  most 
successful  coaches  are  known  for  their  ability  to  discover  promis- 
ing candidates.    The  story  is  told  of  a  famous  coach  who  was 
sitting  in  a  room  looking  through  a  window  when  a  student  passed 
by  on  the  street.   At  a  glance,  the  coach  sized  up  the  student 
as  a  promising  oarsman  and  called  to  him  to  report  for  the 
crew.    The  student  developed  into  an  oarsman  of  exceptional 
ability. 


ATHLETICS  169 

5.  Ability  to  correlate  the  condition  of  the  men  with  the 
exigencies  of  practice.  The  coach  must  be  able  to  bring  the 
individual  athlete  to  the  highest  degree  of  skill  with  the  maximum 
of  speed,  strength,  and  endurance  of  which  he  is  capable.  This  is 
extremely  difficult  to  accomplish  because  it  requires  the  modifica- 
tion of  coaching  and  training  methods  to  fit  the  needs  of 
each  individual  according  to  his  temperament  and  peculiarities. 
In  the  long  run,  the  coach  most  likely  to  succeed  is  the  college 
man  who  takes  up  coaching  as  his  life's  work,  because  he  is  en- 
thusiastically interested  in  athletics  and  possesses  the  necessary 
qualifications.  In  order  to  attract  men  properly  qualified  to  enter 
the  coaching  profession,  appointments  should  be  made  by  the 
college  authorities  on  the  same  basis  as  appointments  in  other 
branches  of  instruction.  This  policy  is  advocated  by  the  Na- 
tional Collegiate  Athletic  Association,  and  is  already  in  practice 
in  a  number  of  colleges.* 

Amateurism  and  professionalism. — Athletics  in  school 
and  college  are  constantly  under  fire.  Criticisms  directed 
toward  various  aspects  of  professionalism,  undue  empha- 
sis on  winning  games,  absorption  of  students'  time  are 
general  in  all  institutions.  But  athletics  will  stay,  and 
will  contribute  just  as  much  or  just  as  little  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  youth  of  the  university  or  school  as  the  wisdom 
of  governing  authorities  permits.  In  the  first  place,  it 
is  important  to  discuss  this  question  of  professionalism 
and  its  attendant  evils  not  in  an  academic  way  but  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  causation  and  its  treatment. 

1.  Professionalism,  proselytism,  etc.,  are  not 
bound  up  with  any  essential  need  of  athletics  but 
are  outgrowths  of  a  failure  of  school  authorities  to 
make  athletics  a  positive,  constructive  element  in 
education.  So  long  as  school  and  college  authorities 
look  upon  play  and  athletics  as  "evils"  to  be  curbed 
and  " regulated/'  or  as  means  for  "putting  the  col- 
lege on  the  map,"  just  that  long  will  the  problems 
growing  out  of  athletics  so  conducted  remain  un- 
solved. Instead  of  repression  and  restriction,  there 

*  Meylan,  Geo.  L.  "Athletic  Training."  American  Physical  Education  Review,  April, 
1913,  p.  217. 


170  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

must  come  stimulation  and  encouragement  for  the 
right  kind  of  athletics.  One  cardinal  principle  in 
pedagogy  is  to  overcome  abuses  and  vices  by  pro- 
viding an  offering  and  establishing  a  situation  in 
which  the  vices  cannot  exist.  The  whole  question  of 
professionalism  in  college  athletics  requires  study 
and  understanding.  There  is  great  need  for  a  federa- 
tion of  athletic  organizations  from  elementary  school 
to  college  and  athletic  club.  Such  a  federation,  by 
guiding  all  athletic  organizations,  would  set  standards, 
determine  policies,  hold  conferences,  restrict  and 
ultimately  remove  the  obnoxious  growths  of  com- 
petitive amateur  athletics  in  America.  Certain 
athletic  organizations  are  opposed  to  such  federa- 
tion. They  have  special  interests,  in  part  political 
and  in  part  commercial,  to  protect.  But  their  selfish 
opposition  is  limited.  When  the  responsibility  of 
athletics  for  development  of  fine  types  of  manhood 
is  recognized  by  enough  leaders,  the  federation  will 
come.*  The  bibliography  (2-14)  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter  gives  important  selected  references. 

2.  'Athletic  coaching  systems  are  often  wrongly 
judged  by  their  production  of  victories  in  inter- 
collegiate or  interscholastic  games  and  such  judg- 
ment leads  to: 

a.  An  effort  on  the  part  of  the  coaches  to  win 
games.  An  instructor  in  English  is  not  judged  by  the 
number  of  Whitmans,  Lowells,  O.  Henrys,  or  John- 
sons he  graduates,  nor  indeed  upon  the  literary 
quality  shown  by  those  who  take  his  courses,  but 
upon  his  ability  to  present  the  elements  of  his  sub- 
ject and  to  influence  and  direct  his  students  in  and 
toward  the  best  standards  and  expressions  of  Eng- 

*  See  an  article  by  Fuessle,  N.    "America's  Boss-ridden  Athletics,"  The  Outlook, 
April  19,  1922. 


ATHLETICS  171 

lish.  If  that  test  were  applied  to  the  football  coach, 
he  would  be  judged  by  his  efficiency  in  presenting 
the  technique  of  the  game  (measured  in  part  by 
victories  won)  and  in  the  influence  he  exerted  toward 
the  finest^  expression  of  the  emotions  in  moments 
of  great  emotional  play,  and  the  strongest  work- 
ing of  will  in  situations,  critical  and  pregnant  with 
disaster. 

b.  An  effort  on  the  part  of  coaches  to  win  games 
by  any  means.  The  coach  must  be  more  interested 
in  the  factors  of  his  work  that  influence  wholesomely 
the  development  of  fine  character  than  he  is  in  win- 
ning the  games.  "  Sport  for  sport's  sake  "  as  a  phrase 
expressive  of  a  point  of  view  that  condemns  the  effort 
to  win  games  by  fair  means  or  foul  is  entirely  satis- 
factory. Certainly  to-day  in  school  or  college  sport, 
no  program  can  be  sanctioned  that  requires  unfair 
means  for  its  success. 

On  the  other  hand  this  phrase  "sport  for  sport's 
sake"  is  misleading  and  is  used  by  many  to  mean 
all  that  is  feeble  and  weak  in  sport.  The  team  or 
individual  should  play  to  win;  any  other  attitude  is 
inconsistent  with  the  best  values  that  flow  from  the 
contest.  Theodore  Roosevelt  expressed  this  dynamic 
and  manly  thought  in  an  address  to  Harvard  under- 
graduates when  he  said,  "I  wish  to  see  Harvard  win 
a  reasonable  proportion  of  the  contests  in  which  it 
enters,  and  I  should  be  heartily  ashamed  of  every 
Harvard  athlete  who  did  not  spend  every  ounce 
there  was  in  him  in  the  effort  to  win,  provided  only 
that  he  does  it  in  an  honorable  and  manly  fashion." 

In  short,  a  situation  that  leads  a  coach  to  seek 
victories  at  any  cost  is  intolerable  and  indefensible. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  nothing 
wrong  in  winning  games  and  no  phrase  of  "sport  for 


172  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

sport's  sake"  must  be  interpreted  to  mean  weakness, 
feebleness,  or  indifference.  " Sport  for  sport's  sake" 
must  not  become  synonymous  with  "art  for  art's 
sake."  The  poseur,  the  dilettante,  are  as  objection- 
able in  sport  as  in  art. 

c.  An  effort  to  evade  scholastic  standards.    There 
can  never  be,  even  in  the  most  liberal  views  of  what 
education  seeks  anything  but  agreement  with  the 
statement  that  for  the  pupil  in  school  or  the  student 
in  college  the  first  consideration  is  the  studies  of 
the  program.    Any  system  that  permits  evasion  by 
the  few  of  the  scholastic  standards  for  the  many  is 
fundamentally  wrong.     It  follows,  therefore,  as  a 
corollary  that  it  should  not  be  permitted  the  student 
in  pursuit  of  intellectual  growth  in  any  school  or 
college  to  sacrifice  the  physical  foundation  of  life  in 
pursuit  of  mental  achievements.    The  athlete  must 
keep  up  his  scholastic  standards;    the  book  lover 
must  keep  up  his  physical  vigor. 

d.  An  effort  to  be  a  success  as  judged  by  an 
athletic  association  or  by  students  who  desire  only 
whining  teams.    The  coach  as  popularity  hunter,  as 
"trimmer"  on  vital  questions  of  the  institution  leads 
to  disaster.    To  seek  athletic  success  only  tends  to 
develop  special  treatment  for  special  athletes,  to  foster 
an  athletic  aristocracy  in  the  school,  to  neglect  those 
with  lesser  ability  and  greater  need  and  to  cause  lack 
of  cooperation  with  the  general  aims  and  purposes  of 
the  school.  The  attitude  that  is  correct  in  this  connec- 
tion is  that  expressed  by  a  professor  of  physical  educa- 
tion in  conversation  with  the  dean  of  the  College  of 
Engineering.    He  said,  "I  am  as  interested  as  you  are 
in  training  good  engineers.   I  trust  we  may  hold  a  com- 
mon ground  concerning  the  foundation  around  which 
the  technical  courses  will  be  built  but  I  am  most 


ATHLETICS  173 

anxious  for  you  to  appreciate  that  I  am  not  interested 
in  developing  athletes  but  in  developing  men." 

3.  The  resolution  of  the  National  Collegiate  Ath- 
letic Association  adopted  by  a  unanimous  vote  by 
the  convention  of  1910,  sets  a  standard  that  strikes 
in  a  very  definite  way  at  the  core  of  the  problem. 
The  resolution  follows: 

It  is  the  sense  of  the  National  Collegiate  Athletic  Association 
that  coaching  and  training  be  confined  to  the  regular  members  of 
the  teaching  staff  employed  by  the  governing  board  of  the  insti- 
tution for  the  full  academic  year;  and  further,  that  athletics  be 
made  a  regular  department  and  receive  the  same  consideration 
and  be  given  equal  responsibility,  and  be  held  to  the  same 
accountability  as  any  other  department  in  the  college  or 
university.* 

This  resolution  if  put  into  effect  in  school  and  col- 
lege has  within  its  scope  and  spirit  the  solution  of  the 
evils  in  the  athletic  situation  today.  There  are  in- 
volved in  this  resolution  as  a  practicable  and  success- 
ful program  of  administration  certain  implications, 
not  the  least  of  which  is  the  selection  of  the  proper 
person  as  director  of  athletics.  This  resolution 
recognizes  "play  as  a  fundamental  determinant  in 
the  growth  and  development  of  all  children  and 
youth  in  respect  to  physical  organs  and  their  func- 
tions, intelligence,  and  character."  It  not  only  looks 
upon  the*  vigorous  fighting  games  as  characteristic 
of  adolescence  but  also  considers  their  function  to 
be  a  primary  mode  of  ethical  and  moral  training. 
Because  of  these  considerations,  Professor  Ehler** 
states  seven  vital  implications  of  this  resolution: 

First.  Athletics — intercollegiate  as  well  as  intramural — to  be 
made  an  essential  part  of  the  system  or  method  of  physical  edu- 
cation in  each  institution. 

*  Dudley,  W.  L.  "The  Proper  Control  of  Athletics."  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Collegiate  Athletic  Association.  December  27,  1912,  Vol.  18,  p.  209. 

** Ehler,  Geo.  W.  "The  Regulation  of  Intercollegiate  Sport."  American  Physical 
Education  Review.  April,  1914,  Vol.  19,  p.  284. 


174  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Second.  The  staff  of  the  department  of  physical  education  to 
include  every  person  having  anything  to  do  with  any  aquatic, 
gymnastic,  or  athletic  activity  conducted  in  that  institution. 

Third.  The  members  of  that  staff  to  be  selected  in  the  same 
way,  and  subjected  to  the  same  tests  of  education,  training,  ex- 
perience, and  instructional  efficiency,  as  other  members  of  the 
faculty,  but  in  the  matters  of  moral  character,  personality,  and 
leadership,  to  be  required  to  measure  up  to  the  highest  practical 
standard  set  by  the  college  professor  of  the  best  type. 

Fourth.  Wherever  the  athletic  instructor  does  not  approxi- 
mate to  the  standard,  displace  him  with  one  who  does.  Better 
no  athletics  at  all  than  training  and  coaching  by  a  man  whose 
influence  is  not  positively  constructive. 

Fifth.  The  athletic  director  should  approximate  the  college 
professor  of  the  best  type;  he  should  be  a  member  of  the  faculty 
committee,  and  properly  its  chairman. 

Sixth.  Positive  and.  aggressive"  promotion  of  the  ideas  and 
ideals  of  clean  sport  by  the  athletic  department  among  the 
student  body,  and,  through  them,  in  their  home  communities, 
and  further,  through  establishment  of  relations  by  the  extension 
method  with  communities,  elementary  and  secondary  schools, 
and  normal  schools. 

Seventh.  The  selection,  education,  and  training  of  college 
men  of  the  best  type  to  be  physical  educators,  athletic  directors, 
and  instructors. 

Inter  scholastic  versus  intraschool  athletics.  Inter- 
collegiate versus  intramural  sport. — The  criticisms  di- 
rected at  interscholastic  and  intercollegiate  athletics  have 
been  leveled  at  the  practice  of  overspecialization  in  train- 
ing, the  selection  of  a  few  for  the  team,  the  danger  of 
injury  in  contests,  and  the  neglect  of  the  many  of  the 
school  for  the  few.  These  criticisms,  as  those  relating  to 
professionalism,  are  not  such  as  to  be  final.  Nothing  hi 
the  organization  and  administration  requires  such  special- 
ization except  the  unwillingness  to  treat  the  subject  of 
play  and  sport  from  a  constructive,  positive,  and  educa- 
tional point  of  view. 

Athletics  are  not  physical  training  and  are  not  to  be 
confused  with  the  more  formal  training  of  the  gymnasium, 
but  on  the  other  hand  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as 
entirely  apart.  They  constitute  a  legitimate  part  of  the 


ATHLETICS  175 

work  and  program  of  a  department  of  physical  education. 
Physical  education  in  its  modern  appreciation  is  concerned 
with  the  conservation  and  promotion  of  the  play  activities 
of  youth  and  is  primarily  interested  in  the  values  flowing 
therefrom,  whether  these  values  are  physical,  psychic, 
social,  or  moral  and  whether  the  form  of  expression  be 
gymnastic,  aquatic,  or  athletic. 

The  error  often  made  is  to  think  of  play  and  athletics 
as  a  means  of  physical  training.  They  may  be,  but  that 
is  not  their  chief  contribution.  Thej  should  be  hygienic, 
but  if  a  man's  soul  is  ennobled  and  his  leg  broken,  we  are 
interested  greatly  in  the  former,  but  little  in  the  latter. 
The  proper  emphasis  in  this  connection  was  given  by 
Theodore  Roosevelt  when  he  said: 

I  have  no  sympathy  whatever  with  the  overwrought  sentimentality* 
which  would  keeplTyoung  man  in  cotton  wool,  and  I  have  a  hearty 
contempt  for  him  if  he  counts  a  broken  arm  or  collar  bone  as  of  serious 
consequence,  when  balanced  against  the  chance  of  showing  that  he 
possesses  hardihood,  physical  address,  and  courage. 

Athletics  in  its  interschool  and  intercollegiate  aspects 
presents  a  training  in  feeling  and  will  that  is  especially 
valuable  since  feeling  and  will  are  so  basal  to  human  social 
behavior.  The  broader,  more  subtle,  and  less  often 
recognized  values  of  intercollegiate  sport  are  well  set 
forth  by  Mr.  John  Collier.  In  speaking  in  support  of 
Dr.  Gulick's  defense  of  intercollegiate  athletics,  Mr. 
Collier  said: 

I  believe  the  defense  can  rest  just  where  Dr.  Gulick  left  it — on  the 
ground,  namely,  that  intercollegiate  athletics  have,  to  the  colleges  and 
their  whole  student  bodies,  a  value  similar  to  or  identical  with  that 
of  great  drama.  They  create  college  spirit,  a  thing  not  more  valuable 
to  the  college  than  to  the  student  through  his  whole  after  life.  They 
break  right  across  the  puerile  and  snobbish  exclusions  which  tend  to 
grow  up  in  college  life  as  in  social  life  generally.  They  constitute  a 
vivid — even  passionate-yform  of  enthusiasm,  through  which  the  stu- 
dent's personal  egotism  is  absorbed  into  his  group  egotism. 


176  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

These  uses  of  intercollegiate  sport  are  identical  with  the  primal  uses 
of  drama,  which  deals  with  group  emergencies  and  conflicts,  and  makes 
possible  the  sublimated  expression  of  group  aggressiveness.  All  of 
those  who  saw  "The  Trojan  Women"  last  spring,  or  who  have  seen 
"The  Weavers,"  now  playing  at  the  Garden  Theater,  will  recognize 
the  truth  of  the  above  statement,  even  though  they  be  not  familiar 
with  the  history  of  primitive  drama  and  with  the  intimate  connection 
which  exists  among  primitive  peoples  between  folk  religion,  folk  drama, 
and  folk  athletics. 

The  question  as  to  the  intellectual  content  of  intercollegiate  athletics 
(intercollegiate  drama)  is  no  more  relevant  than  the  question  of  their 
immediate  use  in  the  physical  development  of  the  mass  of  the  students. 
The  inner  dynamics  of  intercollegiate  sports  are  emotional  and  social 
rather  than  intellectual  or  gymnastic.  They  are  not  intended  to  prepare 
students  for  sedentary  occupations,  but  rather  so  to  tie  up  their  personal 
natures  with  the  group  consciousness  that  they  will  be  able  truly  to  live, 
even  though  engaged  in  sedentary  occupations.  And  of  all  nations, 
America  is  the  least  one  which,  at  this  particular  moment  of  history, 
can  afford  to  dispense  with  any  enthusiasm  or  avocation  which,  like 
intercollegiate  athletics,  has  a  group-forming,  a  society-forming 
tendency.* 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  with  proper  attention  to 
athletics  in  the  school  and  college,  aiming  to  conserve  its 
positive  and  constructive  values,  intercollegiate  sport  and 
interscholastic  sport  should  be  continued  and  extended. 
The  goal  for  all  athletics  is  finer  types  of  citizenship. 
Intercollegiate  athletics  are  to  be  judged,  as  indeed  all 
athletics  should  be  judged,  by  their  contribution  to 
human  welfare  in  terms  of  fine,  pure,  strong  manhood. 
If  the  " evils"  can  not  be  removed,  then  intercollegiate 
athletics  should  be  abandoned. 

Athletics  as  extra-curricular  activities. — The  advan- 
tages of  extra-curricular  athletics  are  absent  when  con- 
trasted with  the  possibilities  of  a  progressive  program. 
Athletic  associations  and  athletic  leagues  have  been 
pioneers  and  have  opened  the  way.  They  were  necessary 
to  fight  the  narrow-mindedness  of  "faculty"  and 
"teachers."  In  this  pioneer  field,  public  school  athletic 

*  From  a  letter  written  by  John  Collier  to  the  Editor  of  the  New  York  Times,  December 
30,  1915. 


ATHLETICS  177 

leagues,  such  as  those  in  New  York  City,  Baltimore,  and 
Detroit,  have  done  splendid  work.  The  need  now  is  for 
coordination  in  the  general  program;  the  developmental 
period  is  past. 

The  disadvantages  are  the  resulting  evils  that  grow 
out  of  a  student  activity  with  ''faculty  control"  that  is 
nothing  but  faculty  taboo,  the  overspecialization  of  the 
few  and  neglect  of  the  many,  the  emphasis  on  winning 
at  all  costs  in  order  to  come  up  to  the  standard  of  success 
held  by  athletic  associations,  and  the  continual  exposures 
hi  the  newspapers  of  irregularities  among  the  colleges. 
The  following  headlines  are  typical  of  the  situation  which 
results  from  athletics  conducted  as  an  aside,  as  a  "safety, 
valve,"  and  as  "  advertisement  for  the  school." 

CAST  OFF 

AS  COACH  AT 


"Did   Little   Character  Building," 

Is  Faculty  Committee  Head's 

Explanation 

Special  to  The  New  York  Times. 


ATHLETES  IN 


SHUTTLECOCK  ROLE 


Status    of    Disqualified    Men 
Bandied  Between  Two  Com- 
mittees for  Decision 


Special  to  The  New  York  Times. 


178  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

MASS  OF  DATA  FOR 
GRILLING  ATHLETICS 


Collegiate  A.  A.  to  Lay  Facts 

Before  Foundations  for 

Investigation 


ASSAIL  EVIL  IN 
COLLEGE  SPORT 


MAY  COVER  WHOLE  NATION 


Present  System  Blamed  for 

Low  Scholastic  Standards 

and  Commercialism 


COACH  AS  FACULTY  MEMBER 


Dr.    Meylan    of    Columbia    Thinks 
Proposed  Change  Would  Amelio- 
rate Conditions   Decidedly 


Athletics  for  all. — Principal  Reilly*  has  worked  out  a 
splendid  suggestion  for  the  solution  of  the  athletic  prob- 
lem in  the  elementary  school.  In  a  personal  letter  Mr. 
Reilly  says: 

As  for  me  when  I  talk  athletics,  I  mean  an  integral  part  of  the  scheme 
of  education  from  the  fifth  year  of  the  elementary  school,  to  and  through 
the  post-graduate  schools  of  the  university.  I  stand  for  one  principle : 

*  ReiUy,  Frederick  J.  New  Rational  Athletics  for  Boys  and  Girle.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
New  York,  1920. 


ATHLETICS  179 

f 

Make  the  school  team  80  per  cent  oflhe  register,  thus  at  one  fell  swoop 
wiping  out  professionalism  and  proselytism  and  giving  the  ordinary 
boy  and  the  under-developed  boy  a  chance  to  get  some  athletic  training. 

I.  Heretofore,  our  minimum  requirements  for  scoring  in  each  event 
were  based  on  "grade"  alone.    So  long  as  we^  considered  only  class 
averages,  that  was  fair  enough.    But  for  individual  competition  and 
rating,  it  was  manifestly  unfair  to  the  bright  youngsters  who  were 
above  their  normal  grade.    Consequently  we  worked  out  this  new 
system  of  handicapping,  based  on  four  factors — grade,  age,  height,  and 
weight,  the  sum  of  these  being  the  nearest  we  could  come  to  determining 
the  "physiological  age"  which  would  be  the  basis  of  athletic  com- 
petition. 

II.  The  division  into  groups  under  certain  arbitrary  "exponents" 
for  age,  height,  and  weight,  is  not  the  result  of  guesswork.     It  is  based 
on  a  careful  study  of  figures  obtained  in  hundreds  of  cases  for  several 
terms  past. 

III.  The  study  of  these  figures  showed  that  at  this  particular  stage 
of  growth  (between  the  fifth  and  eight  year  of  school)  the  boys  and  the 
girls  average  practically  the  same  in  weight  and  height.    Consequently 
the  system  of  classification  for  both  is  exactly  the  same. 

IV.  We  divide  the  classes  into  two  cycles : 

Fifth  and  sixth  years  in  one  division,  called  juniors, 
Seventh  and  eighth  years  in  another,  called  seniors. 
In  each  division  we  establish  five  classes,  one  corresponding  roughly 
to  the  normal  pupils  in  each  of  the  four  grades,  and  an  extra  one  to  take 
care  of  the  over-age,  over-weight,  over-height  pupils. 

V.  This  new  classification  has  produced  a  very  evident  feeling  of 
satisfaction  among  the  boys  and  girls.    The  bright  little  ones  who  are 
away  beyond  their  grades  are  not  penalized  for  having  brains.    A 
lightweight  in  8B  may  have  to  meet  only  7A  or  7B  requirements.    On 
the  other  hand,  the  big  husky  fellows  find  themselves  matched  against 
boys  of  their  own  kind. 

VI.  The  standards*  adopted  this  term  for  each  event  are,  of  course, 
only  tentative.    They  may  have  to  be  changed  somewhat  as  a  result 
of  experience  with  the  new  classification  system.    But  we  are  inclined 
to  believe  that  the  changes,  if  any,  will  be  very  slight,  for  the  reason 
that  these  figures  are  not  guesswork  either.     They  are  based  on  a  care- 
ful study  of  results  obtained  last  term. 

VII.  Schools  that  take  up  this  work  may  find  the  standards  rather 
high  at  first.   It  is  quite  feasible  for  them  to  lower  all  one  step,  dropping 
"Class  B"  down  to  the  "A"  standards,  making  a  still  lower  standard 
for  "A." 

We  hold  a  monthly  interclass  meet  in  the  school  yard.     The  class 
winning  the  highest  number  of  points  in  the  four  meets  gets  a  banner. 

*  The  standards  for  classification  are  given  in  Mr.  Reilly'a  book,  New  Rational  Athletics 
for  Boys  and  Girls. 


180  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  squads  winning  the  highest  number  of  points  receive  a  button  for 
each  member.  80  per  cent  of  the  class  must  be  paid-up  members  of 
the  Athletic  Association  in  order  to  be  eligible  to  compete.  The  interest 
in  these  meets  is  so  keen  that  pur  Athletic  Associations,  both  boys'  and 
girls' ,  are  in  a  financially  flourishing  condition.  All  expenses  for  medals, 
banners,  buttons,  record  cards,  special  apparatus,  etc.,  are  paid  out  of 
the  funds  of  the  association. 

Athletics  for  girls. — Girls'  athletics  have  not  entered 
into  the  intercollegiate  or  interscholastic  fields  to  any 
appreciable  extent.  There  are  some  interschool  games, 
especially  in  basketball.  Everything  in  this  respect 
indicates  that  the  women  will  make  the  same  mistakes 
that  the  men  have  blundered  into.  Certainly  there  should 
be  no  extension  into  the  interschool  field  if  newspaper 
publicity,  extreme  specialization,  and  the  professional 
spirit  are  to  appear. 

The  high  school  girl  should  have  competitive  games 
under  close  supervision  and  every  opportunity  should  be 
given  to  develop  self-control  in  emotional  situations. 
This  has  been  dealt  with  elsewhere. 

The  college  girl  should  profit  greatly  from  intercolle- 
giate sport.  A  desirable  development  would  produce  a 
real  intercollegiate  affair,  in  which  two  institutions  would 
come  together  as  student  body  and  faculty  for  a  day  of 
friendly  festival  and  contest.*  There  might  well  be  an 
address  by  the  president  of  the  college,  and  in  the  after- 
noon, varsity  and  class  contests  in  a  wide  variety  of  sport 
and  games.  The  idea  of  such  an  intercollegiate  occasion 
might  well  be  expressed  in  educational  values  such  as 
flow  from  mutual  understanding,  keen  rivalry,  and  clean 
sportsmanship.  If  intercollegiate  sport  for  girls  is  to  be 
a  junket,  then  let  us  not  have  any;  if  it  will  become  an 
intercollegiate  occasion,  an  educational  drama,  we  may 
look  forward  hopefully  to  its  initiation. 

*  On  May  11, 1921,  Columbia  University  closed  classes  and  visited  West  Point.  Faculty 
and  students  joined  in  a  day  of  festivities  marked  by  a  baseball  game  between  Columbia 
varsity  and  West  Point,  organ  recital,  and  review  of  the  cadets  by  President  Butler  and 
General  McArthur. 


ATHLETICS  181 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  DUDLEY,  W.  L.    "The  Proper  Control  of  Athletics."    Proceed- 

ings of  the  National  Collegiate  Athletic  Association,  December 
27,  1912,  p.  208. 
A  strong  paper  urging  faculty  control  and  direction. 

2.  BAKER,  PHILIP  P.     "Olympiads  and  Liars."     Outlook,  Vol. 

102,  p.  355,  October  19,  1912. 

3.  BRIGGS,  WALTER.   President's  Address,  "Clean  Sport."   Ameri- 

can Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  19,  p.  273,  April,  1914. 

4.  CAMP,  WALTER.   "What  are  Athletics  Good  For."  Outing  Mag- 

azine, Vol.  63,  p.  259. 

5.  GARDINER,  G.  W.    Greek  Athletic  Sports  and  Festivals. 

6.  GULICK,  L.  H.    "Amateurism."    American  Physical  Education 

Review,  Vol.  13,  p.  98,  February,  1908,  or,  Outlook,  Vol.  98, 
p.  597,  July  15,  1911. 

7.  HETHERINGTON,   CLARK.    "The   Foundation   of   Staleness." 

American  Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  14,  p.  566,  Novem- 
ber, 1909. 

Ibid.  "A  Statement  of  Principles  for  a  National  Athletic 
Program."  American  Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  16, 
p.  593,  December,  1911. 

8.  KEMP,  J.  F.     "The  Proper  Function  of  Athletics  in  Colleges 

and  Universities."     American  Physical  Education  Review, 
Vol.  13,  p.  91,  February,  1908. 

9.  MCKENZIE,  R.  T.     "The  Chronicle  of  the  Amateur  Spirit." 

American  Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  16,  p.  79,  February, 
1911. 

10.  NICHOLS,  E.  H.     "  Discussion  of  Summer  Baseball."   American 

Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  19,  p.  292,  April,  1914. 

11.  PEABODY,  E.     "Ideals  of  Sport  in  England  and  America." 

American  Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  19,  p.  277,  April, 
1914. 

12.  BERRY,  BLISS.     The  Amateur  Spirit,  Houghton  Mifflin  &  Com- 

pany, Boston,  1904. 

13.  SARGENT,  D.  A.     "Competition  in  College  Athletics."    Ameri- 

can Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  15,  p.  579,  November, 
1910. 

14.  STEWART,    C.   A.      "Athletics   and   the   College."     Atlantic 

Monthly,  p.  153,  February,  1914. 

The  above  references  discuss  the  perplexing  problems  that  grow 
out  of  athletics.  They  are  important  discussions. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

MANAGEMENT  OF  ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND 
CONTESTS 

Athletic  meets  conducted  by  inexperienced  teachers 
are  often  tiresome  to  watch  and  uninteresting  for  partici- 
pants because  details  are  not  planned  for.  Success  in 
management  depends  upon  definite  plans  and  infinite 
pains  in  small  details.  College  meets,  Amateur  Athletic 
Union  meets,  and  meets  of  Public  School  Athletic 
Leagues  .of  New  York  and  other  large  city  systems  are 
usually  run  off  in  splendid  time  because  of  the  experienced 
management.  There  is  no  problem  in  administration 
that  organizations  of  this  type  are  not  prepared  to  solve. 
An  interschool  meet,  however,  affords  difficulties  at  times 
because  of  the  inexperience  of  officials  and  lack  of  intelli- 
gent planning  for  all  the  details.  Often  difficulties  arise 
because  the  contestants  are  not  trained  in  relation  to  the 
new  rules  of  a  game  or  contest.  It  should  be  noted,  there- 
fore, that  the  rules  for  games  and  track  and  field  sports 
are  changed  from  time  to  time  and  that  the  new  rules 
should  be  used.  They  are  to  be  obtained  from  the 
Spalding  Athletic  Library,  published  by  the  American 
Sports  Publishing  Company,  21  Warren  Street,  New  York, 
N.  Y.  It  is  convenient  to  discuss  in  three  divisions  the 
plans  for  an  interschool  meet: 

1.  Preliminary  arrangements 

2.  Plans  for  the  management  of  the  meet 

3.  Essential  materials 

182 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        183 

Preliminary  arrangements. 

1.  Agreement  by  the  management  on  date,  events, 
and  rules.  The  agreement  on  rules  should  cover 
eligibility,  number  of  events  to  be  entered,  and  other 
points  of  similar  nature.  The  rules  agreed  upon 
should  be  printed  and  copies  distributed  to  contes- 
tants in  all  meets  when  the  events  are  unusual  and 
the  participants  are  novices,  unfamiliar  with  athletic 
competition.  Types  of  rules  that  are  helpful  in  this 
connection  are  given  below.  The  first  is  for  a 
grammar  school  meet;  the  second  is  an  interclass 
meet  in  a  woman's  college. 

SPRING  TRACK  MEET 

of  the 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  BOYS'  CLTJBS 
Genesee  Valley  Park — Saturday,  June  5,  1915 
Rules: 

1.  Meet  starts  promptly  at  1.30. 

2.  Numbers  and  pins  will  be  given  out  at  school  headquarters 
at  1.00  o'clock. 

3.  A  boy  may  enter  only  in  his  own  weight  class. 

4.  A  boy  may  enter  but  two  events  besides  the  relay  in  his 
class. 

5.  Two  boys  may  represent  their  school  in  each  event. 

6.  Four  boys  will  constitute  a  relay  team.     Five  may  be 
entered,  one  to  serve  as  a  substitute. 

7.  A  relay  team  lacking  any  member  will  not  be  allowed  to 
compete. 

8.  Weights  taken  and  teams  formed  by  the  club  director 
must  be  approved  by  the  school  principal. 

9.  Each  contestant  must  have  a  physician's  permit  to  enter 
the  meet.     Boys  should  have  been  examined  by  the  school 
physician  within  the  last  six  months. 

10.  Spiked  shoes  not  allowed. 

11.  Boys  changing  numbers  will  be  disqualified  and  will  lose 
all  points  previouslv  gained. 


184  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

12.  First  place  will  count  five  points. 
Second  place  "       "      three  points. 
Third  place    "       "      two  points. 
Fourth  place  "       "      one  point. 

13.  Entries  must  be  in  the  office  by  Saturday,  May  29th. 

NOTE  :  The  trophy  of  the  meet  is  a  beautiful  silver  plaque  now 
held  by  No.  12  School.    Ribbon  badges  will  be  given  to  the  win- 
ners of  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  place  in  each  event. 
Approved  by  C.  F.  GUCKER, 

H.  J.  NORTON,  Assistant  Director  of  Athletics. 

Supervisor  of  Physical  Education. 

TEACHERS'  COLLEGE  INTERCLASS  MEET 

RULES  FOR  EVENTS — FIELD  DAY 

After  reveille,  contestants  will  assemble  in  their  respective 
class  groups.  At  the  call  of  the  announcer,  contestants  are  to 
leave  their  group  and  pass  quickly  to  the  starting  place  of  the 
event.  Contestants  not  in  the  event  must  remain  in  their  group 
formation.  When  each  event  is  over,  return  to  your  group. 

1.  Fifty    Yard   Dash. — Four   contestants   from   each   class 
(sixteen  in  all)  assemble  at  the  starting  mark  in  any  position, 
but  leave  a  distance  of  four  feet  between  runners.    Quickly  make 
ready  for  the  starter's  call  "On  your  mark."    The  signal  to  go 
is  the  report  of  a  revolver.    Start  east  end,  finish  west  end. 
There  is  only  one  heat,  and  four  places  are  to  be  tried  for. 

2.  Target  Throw. — Those  who  are  to  participate  in  the  base- 
ball target  throw,  should  go  in  charge  of  their  group  manager,  at 
some  tune  during  the  meet  and  at  their  earliest  opportunity, 
to  the  place  where  this  event  is  being  run  off  and  make  their 
throw.    Be  sure  to  have  your  throw  recorded.    Two  out  of  three 
count.    Four  places  awarded.    (West  end.) 

3.  Discus  Throw. — (West — south  end.)    To  be  thrown  from 
eight  foot  circle.    Two  contestants  from  each  class;   each  con- 
testant has  three  throws  and  two  preliminary  trials.    The  best 
mark  in  distance  in  three  throws  counts.    Four  places  awarded. 

4.  Sixty  Yard  Hurdle.— (Class  heats.)    (Start  east  and  finish 
west.)    Four  hurdles,  ten  yards  apart  and  fifteen  yards  at  start 
and  finish,  four  contestants  from  each  class.    Event  to  be  run 
in  class  heats  with  a  final  interclass  heat  following  the  dance 
contest^   If  more  than  one  hurdle  is  knocked  down,  that  con- 
testant is  disqualified.    (Seniors  run  first.) 

5.  Dance    Contest. — (North    center.)      Odds   versus   evens. 
Seniors  and  sophomores  dance  first;  juniors  and  freshmen  follow. 
The  judges  are  to  consider  spirit  and  execution  (accuracy  of  steps 
and  formation,  memory). 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        185 

6.  Sixty  Yard  Hurdle. — (Interclass  heat.)     (Rule  as  in  pre- 
liminary.)   Four  places  awarded. 

7.  (a)    Javelin  Throw. — (West — north  end.)   Two  contestants 
from  each  class.    Javelin  to  be  thrown  from  a  line.    Event  is  for 
distance  and  the  point  of  javelin  scores.    Each  contestant  to  have 
three  throws  and  two  preliminary  trials.    Four  places  awarded. 

(b)  Baseball  Throw. — (West — south  end.)  Two  contestants 
from  each  class.  Ball  is  to  be  thrown  from  eight  foot  circle. 
Event  is  for  distance.  Three  throws  and  two  preliminary  trials 
given.  Ball  will  be  thrown  back  and  should  be  stopped  by 
contestant  next  up. 

8.  Fence  Vault. — (West  end.)    Those  who  are  to  participate 
in  the  fence  vault  should  go  at  some  time  during  the  meet  and  at 
their  earliest  opportunity,  to  the  place  where  this  event  is 
being  run  off  and  vault  the  box.    Two  (2)  trials  allowed.    Box 
must  be  cleared  to  score.    Be  sure  to  have  your  vault  recorded. 

9.  Five  Hundred  Yard  Relay. — Ten  contestants  from  each 
class.    The  tie  must  be  received  by  next  runner,  before  the  mark 
is  left,  otherwise  the  class  will  be  disqualified.    Four  places  are 
scored  in  this  event.    (Start  east  end — finish  west  end.) 

10.  Group  Leap. — (Start  east  end — finish  west  end.)     Con- 
testants from  each  class  line  up  in  file  formation  behind  take-off. 
The  first  one  in  each  file  leaps  as  far  as  she  can.    The  judge 
records  the  distance;  she  goes  to  opposite  end  of  the  field.    The 
next  one  walks  to  last  one's  mark  and  toeing  it  leaps  as  far  as  she 
can.    This  is  continued  until  entire  line  has  jumped.    The  class 
making  greatest  distance  from  the  starting  mark  measured  in  a 
straight  line  shall  be  declared  winner.    Contestants  should  re- 
member that  the  mark  recorded  is  taken  at  the  point  nearest  the 
jumping  line  where  any  part  of  the  body  last  touches  the  ground. 

11.  Baseball  Game.    Odds  versus  Evens. — Seven  innings.  Win- 
ners of  the  game  score  five  points  for  their  respective  classes. 

2.  Entries.  A  time  limit  for  entries  is  necessary 
and  it  is  best  to  get  all  the  entries  in  early.  It  is 
essential  to  obtain  the  list  in  time  for  printing  if 
the  program  is  to  contain  the  names  of  entrants. 
The  pupil  or  student  managers  should  be  responsible 
so  far  as  possible  for  securing  the  entries.  Every 
opportunity  for  developing  initiative,  leadership,  and 
responsibility  should  be  fostered.  In  meets  under 
the  Amateur  Athletic  Union,  entrants  must  be  ama- 
teurs to  compete.  Complete  rules  of  this  athletic 


186  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

body,  as  well  as  those  of  different  colleges  and 
athletic  associations  prescribe  the  method  of  en- 
trance registration. 

3.  Securing  grounds.     One  of  the  details  of  impor- 
tance is  obtaining  permission  to  use  the  athletic 
grounds.     If  school  grounds  are  available  nothing 
more  may  be  necessary  than  for  the  captain  or 
manager  to  report  to  the  office  the  day  of  the  meet. 
In  cities,  however,  where  parks,  playgrounds,  and 
special  athletic  fields  are  used  by  different  schools 
and  groups,  it  is  very  important  to  secure  the  field 
permission  early  and  in  writing.     Nothing  starts  a 
meet  worse  than  to  begin  with  a  dispute  regarding 
the  use  of  the  field. 

4.  Marking  field.     Depending  upon  the  facilities 
for  the  meet  the  question  of  marking  the  field  is  a 
small  or  large  matter.    It  is  entirely  possible  to  have 
the  pupils  perform  this  work;   the  important  thing 
is  to  see  that  it  is  done  and  that  the  field  is  ready. 

5.  Securing  officials.     Officials  should  be  selected 
and  invited  early  to  officiate.     The  officiating  at 
school  meets  is  often  very  trying  and  usually  the 
services  are  gratuitous.     It  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  administrator  in  physical  education  to  extend 
thoughtful  and  courteous  attention  to  the  officials. 
They  should  receive  in  writing  a  confirmation  of 
their  appointment  with  detailed  information  of  the 
events,  place  and  time  of  meet,  transportation,  enter- 
tainment, etc. 

6.  Advertising.    The  effect  of  the  advertising  is 
two-fold :  to  secure  as  large  a  participation  as  possible 
and  to  interest  the  general  public  in  the  program.    If 
athletics  are  conducted  with  the  "gate"  in  mind, 
more  attention  will  probably  be  given  to  the  latter 
purpose.     It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  the 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        187 

former  value  has  been  too  much  neglected,  due 
largely  to  the  urgent  necessity  of  appealing  to  the 
public  support.  In  the  school,  posters,  bulletins, 
school  paper,  class  announcements,  notices  hi  assembly 
— all  the  channels  of  communication — should  be  used. 

7.  Prizes.    If  prizes  are  to  be  given  it  will  be 
helpful  to  secure  them  early  and  have  them  on 
exhibition  at  a  prominent  store  in  the  community. 
In  school  meets  it  has  become  the  happy  custom  to 
give  ribbons  for  place  winners.    Different  colors  are 
used  to  designate  the  different  places.    It  should  be 
remembered  that  all  the  members  of  a  relay  team 
would  receive  ribbons  of  the  order  in  which  they 
finished. 

8.  Tickets.    Tickets  should  be  on  sale  at  least  a 
week  before  the  meet.    Complimentary  passes  should 
be  mailed  to  officials,  the  newspapers,  and  others  to 
whom  it  is  desired  to  extend  this  courtesy. 

Plans  for  the  management  of  the  meet. — We  have  been 
discussing  the  preliminary  arrangements  to  be  made.  It 
is  important  to  plan  carefully  for  the  detailed  work  of 
conducting  the  meet.  The  following  would  seem  to  be 
important: 

1.  Official  badges.     It  is  desirable  to  provide  offi- 
cials with  badges  denoting  their  status.    This  avoids 
confusion  in  many  instances  and  assists  in  main- 
taining control  of  the  contestants  and  spectators. 

2.  Directions.     It  is  absolutely  essential  for  all 
school  meets  to  provide  directions  in  printed  form  for 
contestants  and  judges.    Typewritten  sheets  will  be 
found  satisfactory.    The  importance  of  this  is  greater 
if  the  events  are  at  all  unusual  or  different  from 
standard  contests.    In  girls'  meets  this  will  be  found 
especially  important  because  of  the  modifications  in 
events  and  the  inexperience  in  such  matters  of  the 


188  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

participants  and  judges.  The  following  as  types  will 
represent  the  sort  of  information  very  helpful  to 
contestants  and  to  judges: 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS'  TRACK  MEET,  JUNE  5,  1915. 
To  Att  Contestants: 

1.  Pin  your  numbers  on  securely. 

2.  When  not  taking  part  in  an  event  stay  at  your  school 
headquarters.    A  boy  found  violating  this  rule  will  have  his 
number  taken  from  him. 

3.  Each  event  will  be  announced  from  the  announcing  plat- 
form in  the  following  manner :    A  large  gong  will  be  rung  which 
calls  for  silence.    The  announcer  will  then  call  out  the  event 
through  his  megaphone  and  an  event  sign  will  be  raised. 

4.  When  your  event  is  called  go  immediately  to  the  starting 
point. 

5.  Winners  of  events  must  not  ask  officials  unnecessary  ques- 
tions.   The  officials  will  be  very  busy,  and  all  announcements  of 
winners  and  records  broken  will  be  made  from  the  announcing 
platform. 

6.  Prizes  will  be  given  out  during  the  meet  at  the  table  of  the 
custodian. 

7.  Method  of  running  off  events: 

a.  The  first  and  second  boy  in  each  preliminary  heat 
of  the  dashes  will  qualify  for  the  semi-finals. 

6.  The  five  fastest  boys  in  the  semi-finals  will  qualify 
for  finals. 

c.  In  the  220  yard  dash  each  boy  will  run  once,  and  for 
time.    The  four  best  times  will  place. 

d.  In  the  running  broad  jump  each  boy  gets  two  trials. 
The  four  best  jumpers  get  two  extra  trials.    The  best  jump 
counts  whether  in  trials  or  finals. 

e.  In  the  running  high  jump  a  boy  will  be  given  two 
trials  for  each  height.    The  last  four  in  the  contest  will  be 
given  three  trials. 

/.  Each  relay  team  will  run  once,  and  for  time.  The 
teams  making  the  four  best  times  will  place. 

8.  Return  numbers  to  your  director  at  the  close  of  the  meet. 
SUCCESS  TO  YOU  ALL! 

Yours  very  truly, 
C.  F.  GUCKER, 
Assistant  Director  of 
Approved  by  Grammar  School  Athletics. 

H.  J.  NORTON, 
Supervisor  of  Physical  Education. 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        189 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE  ATHLETIC  ASSOCIATION* 
Field  Day— May  8th,  1920 


Officials  and  Dates 

Referee  and  starter  of  events — Dr.  Williams 

Clerk  of  course — Mr.  Wardlaw 

Official  scorer — Miss  Janes 

Assistant  scorer — Miss  Graham 

Announcer — Miss  Rogers 

Field  physician — Dr.  Burton-Optiz 

1.  Fifty  Yard  Dash  (Start  east— finish  west) 

Starter— Dr.  Williams 

Timers — Miss  March,  Miss  Frost,  and  Mr.  Holm 

Judges  at  finish  (West  end) 

a.  Of  first      place  —  Miss  Colby 

6.    "   second     "      —  Miss  Larson 

c.  "  third       "      —  Miss  Fuller 

d.  "  fourth     "      —  Miss  Cooper 
Holders  of  tape — Miss  King  and  Mr.  Scott 
Official  scorer — Miss  Janes 

2.  Baseball  Target  Throw  (West  end) 

**  Supervisor — Miss  Knighton 

Recorders — Misses    Rosenfeld,    Zuedrelle,    MacDonald, 
Morris,  EUiot,  Cole 

3.  Discus  Contest  (West — south  end) 

Judge  at  line — Miss  Van  Santford 

Judges  of  distance — Mr.  Scott  and  Mr.  Wardlaw 

Assistant  scorer — Miss  Graham 

4.  Sixty  Yard  Hurdle  (Class  heats)  (Start  east) 

Starter— Dr.  Williams 

Timers — Miss  March,  Miss  Frost,  and  Mr.  Holm 

Judges  at  finish  (West  end) 

a.  Of  first      place  —  Miss  Colby 

6.    "   second     "      —  Miss  Larson 

c.  "   third       "      —  Miss  Fuller 

d.  ."  fourth     "      —  Miss  Cooper 

5.  Dance  Contest  (North  center) 

To  be  judged  on  spirit  and  execution,  accuracy  of  steps 

and  formation,  memory. 
Judges — Misses  Colby,  Larson,  Mrs.  Fretwell 
Official  scorer — Miss  Janes 

*  In  college  meets  when  participants  and  judges  are  experienced,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
have  the  duplication  given  above.  A  grouping  of  events  for  each  official  would  be  simple, 
adequate,  and  less  expensive. 

**  Supervisor  must  receive  the  entry  list  of  contestants  before  allowing  class  to  compete 
in  this  event. 


190  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

6.  Sixty  Yard  Hurdle  (Final) 

Starter— Dr.  Williams 

Timers — Miss  March,  Miss  Frost,  and  Mr.  Holm 

Judges  of  finish  (West  end) 

a.  Of  first      place  —  Miss  Colby 

b.  "   second     "      —  Miss  Larson 

c.  "   third        "      —  Miss  Fuller 

d.  "   fourth      "      —  Miss  Cooper 
Inspector  of  course-yMr.  Wardlaw 
Holders  of  tape — Miss  King,  Mr.  Scott 
Official  scorer — Miss  Janes 

7.  (a)    Javelin  Throw  (West — north  end) 

Judge  at  line — Miss  Van  Santford 
Judges  of  distance — Misses  Fuller  and  Cooper 
Assistant  scorer — Miss  Graham 
(6)    Baseball  Throw  (West— south  end  < 
Judge  at  line — Mrs.  Fretwell 
Judges  of  distance — Messrs.  Scott,  Wardlaw,  Dr. 

Williams 
Official  scorer — Miss  Janes 

8.  Five  Hundred  Yard  Relay  (Start  east  end — finish  west  end) 

Starter— Dr.  Williams  (East  end) 
Judges  at  finish 

a.  Of  first      place  —  Miss  Colby 

b.  "   second     "      —  Miss  Frost 

c.  "   third       "      —  Miss  Fuller 

d.  "   fourth     "      —  Miss  Cooper 
Judges  of  line  (West  end) 

a.  1919  —  Miss  March 

b.  1920  —  Mr.  Holm 

c.  1921  —  Mrs.  Fretwell 

d.  1922  —  Miss  Van  Santford 
Holders  of  tape — Miss  King  and  Mr.  Scott 
Official  scorer — Miss  Janes 

9.  Fence  Vault  (West  end) 

*  Supervisor — Miss  Knighton 

Judges  of  vault  and  recorders — Misses  Campbell,  Janes, 
Baker,  Andrews,  Wishard,  McCorry 

10.  Group  Leap  (Start  east  end — finish  west  end) 

Judges — Mrs.  Fretwell,  Miss  Van  Santford,  Mrs.  Ward- 
law,  Dr.  Williams 

11.  Baseball  Game  (Baseball  diamond) 

Umpire — Dr.  Williams 

Official  and  assistant  scorers — Misses  Graham  and  Janes 

*  Supervisor  must  receive  the  entry  list  of  contestants  before  allowing  class  to  compete 
in  this  event. 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        191 

3.  Program.    The  order  of  events  should  be  indi- 
cated in  the  program.    It  is  a  good  plan  to  include 
in  the  program  the  past  records  and  holders  of  the 
same.    The  values  of  the  different  places  should  be 
indicated  and  a  summary  provided  for  the  different 
classes  or  organizations  in  the  meet.   The  importance 
of  a  well  set  up  program  cannot  be  overestimated. 

4.  Sheets  for  scorers.    The  forms  on  pages  192-4, 
slightly  modified  for  printing  purposes  have  been 
prepared   by  Mr.   L.   C.   Stevens,   Box   143,   New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.     Cards,  9x11,  for  the   use  of 
officials  may  be  secured  in  quantity  from  Mr.  Stevens. 

Essential  materials. — The  director  of  athletics  who  will 
systematize  his  work  and  will  keep  from  year  to  year  a 
list  of  materials  required  for  the  conduct  of  an  athletic 
meet  will  find  his  work  not  only  easier  but  also  less 
irritating  and  annoying.  Nothing  is  quite  so  confusing 
as  the  lack  of  the  toe  board  when  the  shot  put  is  called, 
or  the  breaking  of  the  only  cross  bar  in  the  high  jump. 
The  following  list,  corrected  from  year  to  year  by  a  games 
director  in  a  city  school  system,  represents  the  materials  he 
found  helpful  in  the  conduct  of  interschool  athletic  meets : 

1.  Marking  field. 

2.  Benches  for  teams  on  field 

3.  Provisions  to  exclude  spectators 

4.  Two  (2)  100-foot  steel  tapes 

5.  Starting  gun  with  blank  cartridges 

6.  Extra  cross  bars 

7.  Shot,  discus,  hurdles,  toe  board,  jump  stand- 

ards, and  other  paraphernalia 

8.  Woolen  yarn  for  finish  of  races 

9.  Stop  watches,  whistles,  and  megaphone 

10.  Rules  for  officials 

11.  Sheets  for  scorer,  clerk  of  course,  andfield  judges 

12.  Summary  sheet 


192 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        193 


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PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        195 

13.  Diagram  of  track  and  assigned  events 

14.  Headquarters 

15.  Event  signs  and  score  boards 

16.  Numbers  and  safety  pins 

17.  Chalk,  tacks,  hammer 

18.  Order  of  events 

Valuable  suggestions  for  equipment  in  track  and  field 
sports  are  given  by  Murphy  (1)  and  Withington  (2). 

Management  of  team  sports  in  competitive  games. — 
Well  organized  and  administered  interschool  contests  in 
games  depend  also  for  their  success  in  management  upon 
thoroughness  in  looking  after  details.  The  following 
suggestions  would  seem  helpful: 

I.  General. 

1.  Contracts  should  be  signed  by  a  responsible  officer  of  the 
school.    It  is  not  desirable  to  have  the  coach  sign  contracts; 
too  frequently  in  interschool  games,  the  coach  cancels  a  game 
that  is  particularly  important.    This  is  especially  true  when  his 
reputation  is  at  stake 

2.  Make  arrangements  for  use  of  field  or  gymnasium  for  the 
season 

3.  Devise  a  system  for  keeping  track  of  equipment  supplied 
to  players.   Texts  on  the  various  sports  give  helpful  hints  on  the 
selection  and  use  of  equipment  (3) 

4.  Arrange  for  competent  officials  for  all  games  in  season  and 
have  list  of  competent  and  available  substitute  officials  for  an 
emergency 

5.  Advertise 

6.  Arrange  for  ticket  sale,  "official"  badges,  and  police 

7.  First  aid  kit 

8.  Score  board 

II.  Specific. 

1.    Baseball  game 

Things  to  provide  for  game : 

a.    Preparation  of  visiting  team  dressing  room,  with 
facilities  for  bathing,  drinking  water,  and  towels 

6.    Proper  marking  of  the  field 

c.  Benches  for  teams  on  the  field 

d.  Provision  to  exclude  spectators  from  the  field 

e.  Baseballs 

/.    Drinking  water  on  the  field 
g.    Copy  of  official  rules 


196  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

2.  Football  game 
Things  to  provide  for  game: 

a.  a  to  d  of  1 

b.  Football 

c.  Ten  yard  lines  for  lineman  and  staff  for  headlinesman 

d.  Whistles,  horns,  and  watches  for  officials 

e.  Drinking  water  on  the  field 
/.    Copy  of  official  rules 

3.  Basketball 
Things  to  pro  vide: 

a.    a  and  d  of  1 
6.    Basketball 

c.  Whistles,  stop  watches,  gun  with  blank  cartridges 

d.  Copy  of  official  rules 

4.  Swimming 
Things  to  provide: 

a.  a  and  d  of  1 

b.  Watches  and  starting  "blocks"  for  officials 

c.  Ropes  or  tapes  for  finish  of  distance  races 

d.  Megaphone,  score  board,  and  chalk 

e.  Sheets  for  scorer,  clerk  of  course,  and  judges 
/.  Summary  sheet 

g.    Order  of  events 
h.    Rules  for  officials 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  prizes  for  competition  on 
exhibition.  A  custodian  should  be  in  charge.  In  inter- 
scholastic  meets  of  the  type  held  at  Ohio  State  University, 
University  of  Texas,  and  other  large  universities,  an 
elaborate  program  for  entertainment  of  the  visiting  high 
school  boys  adds  to  the  responsibilities  of  the  management. 
The  details  of  such  meets  should  be  worked  out  and  cared 
for  by  committees.  The  Ohio  interscholastic  meet  held 
in  connection  with  the  "Big  Six"  at  Ohio  State  University 
is  an  illustration  of  an  excellently  conducted  meet.  Mr. 
L.  J.  St.  John  of  Ohio  State  has  managed  this  affair  with 
rare  skill. 

Swimming  meets. — Intercollegiate  swimming  has  devel- 
oped so  splendidly  as  a  sport  that  the  procedure  of  the 
contest  is  well  defined  by  rules.  School  and  class  meets 
are  often  administered  indifferently  and  the  point  around 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        197 

which  so  much  difficulty  arises  is  the  judging  of  the  diving. 
The  intercollegiate  rules  provide  four  required  and  four 
optional  dives.  The  required  are:  (1)  plain  front,  (2) 
plain  back,  (3)  front  jack,  and  (4)  back  jack.  These  are 
marked  on  the  scale  of  ten.  In  the  standard  dives  the 
form  is  well  known.  Other  dives  that  might  be  chosen 
vary  in  difficulty,  so  that  the  accredited  list  of  optional 
dives  has  a  " factor"  by  which  the  grade  for  that  partic- 
ular dive  must  be  multiplied  to  secure  the  score  for  that 
particular  effort. 

The  form  on  pages  198,  199  shows  a  type  of  diving  card 
that  should  be  supplied  the  judges  of  diving.  One  column 
of  the  blank  is  filled  in  showing  the  use  of  the  " factor" 
which  estimates  the  degree  of  difficulty.  Each  diving 
judge  should  sign  his  card  indicating  in  this  way  the 
authority  for  the  scorer  in  computing  the  results.  It 
should  be  understood  that  the  four  optional  dives  are 
selected  by  the  participant.  The  form  illustrated  here 
indicates  what  Denison  (Ohio  Wesleyan  University)  chose. 
The  choice  of  dives  is  to  be  recorded  and  the  card  handed 
to  the  judge.  The  importance  of  providing  an  exact, 
efficient,  and  convenient  means  for  scoring  the  event  is  to 
be  emphasized. 

Tournaments. — A  tournament  is  a  series  of  games  of 
one  kind  that  results  in  a  winner  by  elimination  of  the 
losers.  There  may  be  a  tournament  in  tennis,  in  golf,  in 
chess,  in  basketball,  in  handball,  and  other  games.  The 
value  of  a  tournament  lies  in  the  number  that  can  be 
interested  to  start  the  contests;  its  disadvantage  lies  in 
the  elimination  of  those  who  may  need  to  play  the  most. 
This  advantage  may  be  overcome  by  continuous  play  in 
which  losers  do  not  drop  out  but  rotation  of  opponents 
occurs. 

Arranging  competition. — In  any  sport  or  game  in  which 
the  tournament  form  is  to  be  followed,  the  players  or 


198 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        199 


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teams  are  paired  by  chance.  Numbers  are  given  the 
teams  and  drawn  from  a  receptacle  according  to  an 
arbitrary  rule  which  will  pair  the  contestants.  If  four 
are  entered  there  will  be  two  pairs  in  the  first  round.  The 
winners  of  the  first  round  (two  in  number)  then  play  and 
the  winner  is  determined.  This  is  a  very  simple  arrange- 
ment and  remains  so  when  2,  or  a  power  of  2  as  4,  8,  16, 
32,  or  64,  etc.,  teams  or  players  are  entered.  If  any  other 
combination  presents  itself,  for  example  12,  or  17,  or  33, 
then  what  is  known  as  "  drawing  bye  "  is  resorted  to.  The 
number  to  draw  "bye"  is  determined  by  subtracting  the 
number  entered  from  the  next  highest  power  of  2.  Thus 
if  17  are  entered  15  will  draw  " bye "— (32-17  =  15). 
That  leaves  two  who  will  play  a  preliminary  round  and 
the  one  winner  from  this  play  will  enter  the  first  round 
with  the  15  "byes"  making  16  the  correct  number.  The 
following  instructions  for  "drawing  bye"  the  author  used 
in  conducting  a  reconstruction  contest  in  the  army 
hospitals  of  the  Atlantic  Division  of  the  American  Red 
Cross. 

AMERICAN  RED  CROSS 

ATLANTIC  DIVISION 
DEPARTMENT  OF  MILITARY  RELIEF 
Memorandum  for  recreation  directors: 
Instructions  for  conducting  the  tournaments. 

1.  In  arranging  the  contestants  for  the  tournaments  in  quoits  or 
checkers,  the  names  must  come  into  the  first  round  in  powers  of 
2,  as  4,  8,  16,  32,  64,  etc.    This  is  necessary  in  order  to  arrive  with  2 
contestants  in  the  final  round.    If  you  do  not  start  with  4,  8,  16,  32,  or 
64,  you  will  arrive  with  3  men  in  the  final  round.     This  is  not 
satisfactory. 

2.  If  the  number  of  contestants  does  not  equal  exactly  4,  8,  16,  32, 
or  64,  they  must  be  reduced  in  a  preliminary  round  of  play  to  one 
of  the  numbers  indicated  above.    The  number  to  which  the  contestants 
are  reduced  is  always  the  next  lowest  number  in  the  series.    For 
example,  13  must  be  reduced  to  8;   17  to  16;  30  to  16;  63  to  32;  40 
to  32,  etc.    If  more  than  64  are  entered,  it  is  advisable  to  have  two 
tournaments.    The  reduction  of  contestants  to  the  required  number  is 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS       201 

accomplished  by  having  some  "draw  bye"  and  not  play  in  the  pre- 
liminary round  and  the  others  contest  to  determine  which  ones  will 
join  with  the  "byes"  for  the  first  round  of  the  tournament. 

3.  The  procedure  of  drawing  "  bye  "  is  as  follows  :  Write  the  names 
of  the  contestants  on  slips  of  paper,  place  in  a  hat  or  other  receptacle, 
and  draw  out  the  slips,  recording  the  order  in  which  drawn.   Determine 
previously  how  many  and  what  numbers  will  draw  "bye"  and  the 
number  to  play  the  preliminary  round. 

4.  The  number  to  draw  "bye"  will  be  found  by  subtracting  the 
number  entered  from  the  next  highest  power  of  2.     If  31  men  are 
entered,  subtract  from  32.   This  gives  1,  and  1  will  draw  "bye."   One 
"bye"  will  leave  30  in  the  preliminary  round  and  from  this  play  will 
come  15  winners  to  be  arranged  with  the  "bye"  in  the  first  round 
giving  16. 

This  determination  of  the  "bye"  and  preliminary 
players  may  be  worked  out  algebraically.  Assume  that 
31  are  entered.  These  must  be  reduced  to  16  for  the  first 
round.  The  following  will  provide  the  solution  and  help 
to  understand  the  short  cut  of  the  above  method. 

Let  x=  number  of  men  to  play  in  the  preliminary 

round, 

and  y=  number  of  men  to  draw  "bye." 
If  there  are  31  entered,  then 
x+y=31 
x  =  31-y. 

And  if  V^  the  preliminary  players  plus  the  "bye" 
equals  the  first  round,  then 


Substituting  (31  —  y)  in  the  above  equation  for  x, 
we  have 


31-y+2y  = 
2y-y  =  32-31 

y  =  1  number  to  draw  "bye" 

x  =  31-y 

x  =  30  number  to  play  a  preliminary  round. 


202 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


From  the  preliminary  round  there  would  be  15 
winners.  These  and  the  1  "bye"  will  equal  16  to 
start  the  first  round  of  the  tournament. 

Graphic  representation. — After  the  teams  or  players 
have  been  selected  for  the  preliminary  (in  case  of  "  drawing 
bye")  or  first  round  in  case  the  numbers  total  4,  8,  16, 
32,  64,  etc.,  the  names  should  be  posted  and  a  scheme  for 
pairing  the  winners  prepared.  The  f  ollowing  is  the  usual 
form  used — (an  example  of  a  case  when  "drawing  bye"  is 
necessary) : 


Prelim- 


inary 
round 

*    1 

First 
round 

*    2  - 

^ 

\ 

"  I 

f 

*± 
K 

) 

_  i 

ft 

I 

- 

10- 


•11- 

*12- 


Semi- 
finals 


Finals 


Winner 


*It  will  be  noted  that  numbers  1,  2, 11, 12,  did  not  play 
in  the  preliminary  round. 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        203 


The  following  graphic  representation  of  twelve  teams 
arranged  without  the  "bye"  provision  illustrates  the 
necessity  for  the  above  procedure. 


First 
round 


Second 
round 

1 


Semi- 
finals 


Finals 


10- 


10 


12 


11- 
12- 


12 


Winner 


The  above  arrangement  shows  that  players  4,  5,  and  12 
in  the  semi-finals  must  draw  to  see  who  plays.  Suppose 

4  and  5  play  and  12  draws  "bye."    Also  suppose  that  4  is 
victor  over  5  and  also  defeats  12.     It  may  very  well 
happen  that  5  is  a  better  player  than  12  and  yet  by  chance 

5  does  not  get  into  the  finals.    This  injustice  would  be 
diminished  by  a  correct  arrangement  at  the  start. 

It  is  not  always  desirable  to  arrange  teams  in  tourna- 
ment schedules  and  it  becomes  advisable  to  compete  on 
a  percentage  basis. 


204  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Schedule  making.  —  There  are  two  methods  of  arranging 
teams  in  schedules.  One  is  only  available  if  the  number 
of  teams  is  4,  8,  16,  32,  or  similar  powers.  This  method 
is  given  below  with  four  and  also  with  eight  teams: 

In  the  four  team  series  assume  the  four  teams  as  follows  : 
1,  Liberty;  2,  State;  3,  Federal;  4,  Victory.  Arrange 
the  numbered  schools  as  follows  so  that  each  school 
plays  every  other  school: 

1-2 

1-3    2-3 

1-4    2-4 


There  are  four  teams  and  there  will  be  two  games, 
therefore,  in  each  series.  Draw  a  line  through  1-4,  2-3, 
as  shown,  giving  the  first  series,  as 

1-4  Liberty  vs.  Victory 

2-3  State  vs.  Federal 

Pick  up  in  the  next  line  1-3  and  2-4 
1-3  Liberty  vs.  Federal 
2-4  State  vs.  Victory 

The  third  series  is  then  found  to  be 
1-2  Liberty  vs.  State 
3-4  Federal  vs.  Victory. 

Assigning  dates  and  rearranging,  the  following  would 
appear: 

May  1  May  8 

Liberty  vs.  Victory         Liberty  vs.  Federal 
State     vs.  Federal         State     vs.  Victory 

May  15 

Liberty  vs.  State 
Federal  vs.  Victory 

If  an  eight  team  schedule  is  required,  the  schools  are 
numbered  in  the  following  manner: 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS       205 

1,  Townsend;  2,  Lincoln;  3,  Lincoln;  4,  Union;  5,  Cen- 
tral; 6,  Raleigh;  7,  Roosevelt;  8,  Wood.  Arrange  the 
numbers  as  indicated  in  figure  10. 


8 


8         (2) 


Fig.  10.    The  different  lines  indicate  the  teams  to  be  grouped  on  any  one  date. 

Striking  through  the  center  (1)  determine  the  teams 
in  the  first  series,  1-8,  2-7,  3-6,  4-5.  Take  the  next 
line  (2)  and  pick  up  the  pair  needed,  which  is  found  to 
be  4-8.  Repeat  on  the  other  side  (3)  and  pick  up  1-5. 
Continue  as  indicated  by  the  lines  and  numbers  above. 
Arranging  dates  and  teams  the  following  would  appear: 


June  3 
1-8 
2-7 
3-6 
4-5 

June  17 
3-8 
4-7 
5-6 
1-2 

June  5 
1-7 
2-6 
3-5 
4-8 

June  19 
1-4 
2-3 
5-8 
6-7 

June  10 
2-8 
3-7 
4-6 
1-5 

June  12 
1-6 
2-5 
3-4 

7-8 

June  23 
1-3 
2-4 
6-8 
5-7 

206 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        207 

By  assigning  the  appropriate  schools  to  numbers  the 
playing  schedule  is  completed.  It  will  be  seen  that  every 
team  plays  every  other  team  once  and  that  no  two  teams 
play  more  than  two  games  a  week  in  the  playing  season. 
This  method  is  not  as  satisfactory  with  an  odd  number 
of  teams  as  it  is  in  the  schedule.  The  method  that  is 
most  often  used,  therefore,  is  the  second  method  described 
below,  which  is  useful  in  arranging  schedules  for  any 
number  of  teams. 

The  conditions  for  a  contest  of  this  kind  may  vary 
greatly,  but  we  will  assume  that  it  is  desired  that  every 
team  play  every  other  team  and  that  no  team  play  more 
than  two  games  in  any  week.  Using  a  seven  team  league, 
for  example,  arrange  the  teams  on  the  abscissa  and 
ordinate  as  indicated  in  figure  11. 


The  dates  are  placed  in  the  squares  following  the  arrows.  Though 
two  games  a  week  are  played,  three  dates  are  selected  because  of  the 
odd  number  of  teams.  The  schedule  recapitulated  would  appear  as 
follows : 


f  Grant 


Jan.    5 


f  Travis 


[Sherman         [Crocket 


f  Sherman         f  Crocket 


Jan.    7 


I  Lincoln 


Carson 


[Grant 
1  Roosevelt 


Jan.    9 


f  Lincoln 


Travis 


f  Carson 
[Roosevelt 


Jan.  12 


[Grant 
Lincoln 


[Travis 
Carson 


[Sherman 
[Roosevelt 


208 


Jan.  14 


Jan.  16 


Jan.  19 


Jan.  21 


Jan.  23 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

[Sherman  [Crocket 

[Travis  (Roosevelt 

[Lincoln  [Grant 

[Crocket  [Carson 

[Grant  [Travis  [Sherman 

[Travis  [Roosevelt       [Carson 

[Sherman  [Lincoln 

[Crocket  [Roosevelt 

[Lincoln  [Grant 

[Carson  [Crocket 


The  schedule  is  repeated  from  Jan.  26  to  Feb.  13.  Any  arrangement 
of  dates  that  is  desired  may  be  made,  one  game  a  week,  or  a  game 
every  day. 

A  handball  schedule  arranged  by  Mr.  Harry  Scott 
for  six  teams  follows: 


Blue 


fShultz 
JGottlemen 


Treedman 


HANDBALL  SCHEDULE 

Bisehoff 
Brown 


Green 


\Pierson 
/Spiller 


Ited 


fHammond 

[Fritz 

fMiUer 


Black  {caesar  UI~  \Pine  "~     \Salzberg 


Report  games  won  to  Mr.  Scott  immediately  after 

Failure  to  report  immediately  may  mean  that  tne  game  will  be 

forfeited. 

Turn  ball  in  when  reporting. 
Schedule  starts  Monday,  January  12. 
C  in  schedule  means  court. 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS        209 


Blue 

White 

SCHEDULE 
Green          Red 

Black 

Brown 

MEN 

Blue 
Jan.  12 
C-5 

Blue 
Jan.  14 
C-7 

Blue 
Jan.  16 
C-10 

Blue 
Jan.  19 
C-5 

Blue 
Jan.  21 
C-7 

White 
Jan.  12 
C-5 

MEET 

White 
Jan.  16 
C-7 

White 
Jan.  19 
C-10 

White 
Jan.  14 
C-5 

White 
Jan.  23 
C-7 

Green 
Jan.  14 
C-7 

Green 
Jan.  16 
C-7 

ON 
COURTS 

Green 
Jan.  12 
C-10 

Green 
Jan.  21 
C-10 

Green 
Jan.  19 
C-7 

Red 
Jan.  16 
C-10 

Red 
Jan.  19 
C-10 

Red 
Jan.  12 
C-10 

DESIG- 
NATED 

Red 
Jan.  16 
C-5 

Red 
Jan.  14 
C-10 

Black 
Jan.  19 
C-5 

Black 
Jan.  14 
C-5 

Black 
Jan.  21 
C-10 

Black 
Jan.  16 
C-5 

ON 
THIS 

Black 
Jan.  12 
C-7 

Brown 
Jan.  21 
C-7 

Brown 
Jan.  23 
C-7 

Brown 
Jan.  19 
C-7 

Brown 
Jan.  14 
C-10 

Brown 
Jan.  12 
C-7 

SCHED- 
ULE. 

Medical  control  of  athletics  in  competition. — It  is  gen- 
erally accepted  to-day  that  nothing  less  than  a  thorough 
and  scientific  medical  examination  will  be  satisfactory  in 
the  administration  of  the  activities  of  physical  education. 
This  requirement  is  justified  on  two  counts:  the  detection 
of  disease  with  the  consequent  opportunity  to  correct  tne 
defect,  and  the  adequate  supervision  of  those  engaging 
in  strenuous  sports  so  that  preventable  injury  from 
participation  may  not  occur. 

Inasmuch  as  the  participants  in  interscholastic  and 
intercollegiate  sport  are  required  in  most  institutions  to 
maintain  a  satisfactory  amateur  and  academic  standing, 
it  is  convenient  for  the  director  in  those  institutions  with 
modern  standards  to  have  on  one  card  the  information 


210 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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HERNIA  

ATHLETIC  SPORTS,  GAMES,  AND  CONTESTS       211 

on  the  complete  amateur,  academic,  and  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  individual  with  some  detail  of  the  physical 
examination.  There  should  be  space  for  repeated  exam- 
inations. The  card  on  page  210  is  suggestive  of  the  type 
of  card  for  this  information. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  MURPHY,  M.  C.    Athletic  Training,  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York,  1914. 
A  very  interesting  and  helpful  book  by  the  late  Michael  Murphy. 

2.  WITHINGTON,  PAUL.    The  Book  of  Athletics,  Lothrop,  Lee  and 

Shepard,  Boston. 
A  valuable  compilation  from  various  sources. 

3.  WARNER,  GLENN  S.   Course  in  Football  for  Players  and  Coaches, 

Published  privately,  Carlisle,  Pa. 
CLARK  AND  DAWSON.    Baseball,  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  New 

York,  1915. 
WARDLAW  AND  MORRISON.    Basketball,  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York,  1921. 
Three  good  books  on  the  subjects  indicated. 


CHAPTER  TEN 

INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS,  RECREATIONAL  CLUBS, 
CAMPING,  AND  HIKING 

Physical  education  for  all. — Physical  education  is 
broadening  its  program.  By  no  possible  stretch  of  the 
imagination  can  we  see  the  possibility  of  the  profession's 
ever  being  satisfied  with  the  partial,  narrow,  and 
restricted  training  given  hi  some  schools  or  the  highly 
specialized  and  selected  training  given  to  the  few  in 
college.  Physical  education  must  aim  to  afford  an 
opportunity  for  all  to  engage  in  activities  that  are 
physically  wholesome,  mentally  stimulating  and  satisfy- 
ing, and  socially  sound.  The  advent  of  intramural  asso- 
ciations hi  schools  and  colleges  and  the  formation  of 
recreational  clubs  and  camping  and  hiking  organizations 
are  symptomatic  of  the  newer  thought  in  physical  educa- 
tion that  interprets  its  program  in  the  light  of  man's 
nature  and  biologic  needs.  The  view  is  maintained  that 
the  particular  service  that  physical  education  must  render 
is  to  provide  for  all,  opportunities  for  participation  in 
natural,  wholesome  forms  of  physical  activity.  It  is  not 
concerned  hi  specific  muscle  building  programs,  except 
for  the  few  selected  cases  needing  remedial  gymnastics, 
(the  number  of  these  cases  will  be  less  as  the  general 
program  is  improved)  but  is  vitally  interested  in  physical 
education  for  all.  One  of  the  many  excellent  develop- 
ments in  modern  physical  education  is  intramural  sport. 

Intramural  sport. — Intramural  sports  may  be  defined 
as  the  organized  competitive  activity  among  organiza- 

212 


INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS  213 

tions  or  units  within  the  walls  of  an  institution.  In  some 
colleges  the  system  of  intramural  sport  consists  of 
schedules  of  contests  between  two  or  more  class  teams. 
The  purpose  of  this  class  activity  is  frequently  to  discover 
material  for  varsity  teams.  Such  plan  and  purpose  are 
totally  unacceptable.  The  opportunity  must  be  given 
to  every  student  to  take  part  in  some  sport  attractively 
organized  and  intelligently  supervised.  If  good  varsity 
material  is  uncovered,  if  varsity  athletics  are  made 
popular,  those  results  are  interesting  and  valuable  but 
the  point  of  view  of  " athletics  for  all"  must  not  be  lost 
in  the  beneficent  by-products  produced.  In  all  class  con- 
tests and  games,  varsity  members  should  not  be  allowed 
to  participate.  The  effort  to  increase  the  number  of  class 
competitors  should  be  strengthened;  varsity  players  on 
class  teams  weaken  it. 

Frank  Kleeberger,  Professor  of  Physical  Education  at 
the  University  of  California,  says*  in  this  connection: 

Intramural  athletics  may  involve,  assuming  proper  organization, 
gymnasia,  fields,  and  administration,  about  78  per  cent  of  a  university's 
students.  Such  success  would  presuppose  an  intramural  organization 
such  as.  I  believe,  has  seldom  been  put  in  action.  Intramural  sports, 
as  conducted  in  most  universities,  sail  under  false  colors,  failing  to 
train  large  numbers,  reaching  them  only  through  pick-up  competition, 
preceded  only  by  little  or  no  actual  physical  training,  and  in  reality 
proving  more  of  a  menace  to  good  sport  and  physical  health  than  poorly- 
conducted  intercollegiate  athletics. 

The  most  successful  basis  for  intramural  organization  thus  far  experi- 
mented with  at  the  University  of  California  in  the  promotion  of  physical 
training  among  relatively  large  numbers  is  that  developed  during  the 
past  half  year.  Throughout  this  period  the  male  student  body  was 
divided  into  two  arbitrary  groups  which  happened  to  be  fairly  equal  as 
far  as  men  of  athletic  ability  were  concerned.  Each  of  these  two 
divisions,  namely  the  army  and  navy  units  of  the  Student  Army 
Training  Corps,  consisted  of  six  subgroups  or  companies,  which  com- 
panies were  fairly  equally  matched  athletically.  ^Thus  was^  created  an 
ideal  basis  for  the  development  of  athletic  series  in  the  various  sports, 
first  within  each  unit  and  finally  between  the  units.  '  Through  this 

*  Kleeberger,  Frank.  Annual  Report.  Department  of  Physical  Education  for  Men. 
1918-1910.  University  of  California. 


214  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

intercompany  competition  the  logical  representatives  of  each  unit 
were  selected  for  the  final  army-navy  struggle.  This  took  place  and 
resulted  in  great  rivalry  and  interest. 

If  a  scheme  of  intramural  activity  could  be  developed  along  similar 
lines  under  normal  conditions  and  guided  by  a  proper  administration 
equipped  with  adequate  field  and  other  facilities,  a  scheme  of  physical 
training  might  be  evolved  making  unnecessary  requirements  along  this 
line.  Such  a  plan  might  develop  sufficient  interest  to  attract  juniors 
and  seniors  as  well  as  lower  classmen,  but  it  would  depend  for  its  success 
upon  the  establishment  of  very  different  methods  of  procedure  as  to 
intramural  organization  from  those  usually  ^  practiced.  Interclass, 
interfraternity  and  intercollege  rivalry  unguided  often  results  in 
athletic  competition  without  adequate  preliminary  training,  and  com- 
petition between  units  unequal  as  to  athletic  strength  and  experience. 

It  is  important  to  point  out  that  the  haphazard,  poorly 
organized,  and  more  occasional  interclass,  interfraternity, 
or  interclub  contests  are  not  good  illustrations  of  intra- 
mural sport.  The  players  often  are  not  in  good  physical 
condition,  are  untrained,  and  the  injuries  are  more 
frequent  than  in  varsity  sports,  especially  in  football. 
Organization  of  schedules  and  provision  for  expert  super- 
vision are  essential  for  the  proper  development  of  this 
phase  of  physical  education. 

Intramural  sport  for  women. — Athletics  for  all  may  be 
more  readily  realized  for  girls  because  the  traditions  of 
interscholastic  and  intercollegiate  sport  are  less  fixed  than 
in  boys'  schools.  The  organization  of  intramural  athletics 
for  women  at  Wisconsin  University  is  very  well  worked 
out.  In  the  fall  there  are  teams  in  hockey  and  swimming, 
in  the  winter  teams  in  basketball,  indoor  baseball,  and 
bowling,  and  in  the  spring  dancing,  track,  archery,  tennis, 
outdoor  baseball,  volley  ball,  and  quoits.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  each  season  every  student  in  the  department 
registers  for  the  sports  she  wishes  to  pursue.  The  plan 
of  administration  in  basketball  is  typical  of  the  plan  for 
all  the  sports.  It  follows  :* 

"Letter  from  Miss  Lucy  Wallrich,  Instructor  in  Physical  Education,  University  of 
Wisconsin. 


INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS  215 

At  the  beginning  of  the  basketball  season,  all  girls  were  put  into  sec- 
tions, beginners  being  kept  in  separate  classes.  After  several  weeks  of 
practicing  the  class  managers,  the  head  of  sport,  and  the  coach  chose 
class  squads.  We  kept  a  card  catalogue  throughout  the  season  with 
name,  year,  position,  and  remarks  for  every  girl,  which  aided  us  a  great 
deal  when  we  came  to  choosing.  We  put  about  fifteen  to  eighteen  girls 
on  a  squad.  Then  after  about  two  weeks'  practice,  the  first  teams  were 
chosen  from  these  squads.  Then  we  picked  second  teams  for  each 
class  and  also  third  teams.  The  squads  of  the  first  and  second  teams 
receive  points  in  the  Athletic  Association  and  therefore  must  pass  an 
eligibility  rule,  but  the  third  teams  are  not  held  to  this  rule  and  therefore 
do  not  receive  points.  The  remainder  of  the  girls  were  put  into  color 
teams  with  no  attention  paid  to  the  class. 

We  ran  off  first  team  games,  squad  games,  second  and  third  team 
games,  and  the  color  tournament  all  at  the  same  time,  so  you  see  every 
girl  registered  for  basketball  was  playing  on  some  team,  and  in  all  cases 
for  her  class  except  those  on  color  teams.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  in- 
terest and  enthusiasm  in  all  these  games.  We  end  up  all  our  seasons 
with  a  spread  or  picnic,  at  which  time  we  announce  a  varsity 
team — chosen  by  the  head  of  sports,  class  captains,  and  coach.  This 
team  is  purely  honorary  as  we  play  no  intercollegiate  games. 

In  the  spring  we  end  our  season  with  a  big  Field  Day — having  the 
final  Track  Meet,  Baseball  Championship  Game,  Tennis  and  Archery 
finals,  and  the  Dance  Pageant  all  at  that  time. 

Value  of  intramural  sports. — The  committee  on  intra- 
mural sport,  of  the  Athletic  Research  Society,  reports 
(1)  the  result  of  a  questionnaire  in  which  the  values  of 
intramural  sports  were  checked  upon. 

The  following  question  was  asked:  "Will  properly  con- 
ducted intramural  sports  tend  to  improve  the  health, 
scholarship,  and  general  efficiency  of  those  participating?" 

The  answer  was  as  follows : 

Health yes  123—98% 

Scholarship yes  118 — 93%  (three  answers 

modified) 

Scholarship no  2 

General  efficiency . . yes  1 18 — 93%  (one  answer 

modified) 
Total  replies ,  126 


216  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

While  the  report  is  not  final,  it  is  authoritative  and  very 
suggestive  of  the  values  to  be  expected  in  enlarging  the 
physical  education  program. 

Organizations  in  intramural  sport. — Some  games  lead 
easily  to  intramural  organization.  It  is  reported  that  in 
Oregon  and  Washington  great  strides  have  been  made 
especially  in  basketball,  cross  country,  and  boxing.  The 
following  gives  the  point  of  view  from  this  part  of  the 
country: 

We  have  found  that  basketball  is  the  easiest  sport  to  organize  in 
an  intramural  way  and  perhaps  football  is  the  least  worth  while,  due 
to  the  cost  of  equipment  and  liability  to  injury.  We  have  used  indoor 
baseball  and  cross  country  to  take  the  place  of  interest  during  football 
season,  limiting  our  intramural  football  to  the  interclass  games. 

Cross  country  running  as  an  intramural  sport  presents  a  hard 
problem  that  was  solved  at  Oregon  Agricultural  College  by  some 
original  plans  and  rules.  We  gave  awards  to  league  winners,  as  in  other 
sports,  and  awarded  points  to  contestants  over  a  five- week  period, 
each  man  being  permitted  to  run  twice  each  week  over  a  given  course 
with  his  organization  receiving  credit  for  his  scoring.  Each  man  was 
ranked  according  to  the  time  required  to  cover  the  two  and  a  quarter 
mile  course. 

During  basketball  season  we  have  found  that  boxing  and  wrestling 
contests  help  to  round  out  the  season  and  have  proved  popular  when 
properly  supervised.  Tennis,  track  meets,  and  baseball  leagues  are 
easily  organized  during  the  spring  months;  in  fact  you  can't  keep  the 
students  out  of  the  game  once  they  get  the  proper  spirit  toward 
intramural  sport. 

We  have  found  merchants  of  the  city  quite  willing  to  offer  trophies 
for  winning  teams  in  various  sports.  We  have  a  fund  from  our  asso- 
ciated students'  budget  to  cover  purchase  of  medals  and  plaques 
offered  by  the  department  for  winners  in  the  various  fields  of  competi- 
tive sport. 

The  biggest  and  best  feature  about  intramural  sports  is  the  wonderful 
opportunity  offered  the  men  for  development  of  qualities  of  leadership. 
This  idea  should  be  kept  in  mind  and  the  largest  share  of  the  organi- 
zation work  placed  on  the  shoulders  of  the  student  leaders  under  proper 
supervision.* 

The  intramural  committee  suggests  the  following  divi- 
sion for  college  organization: 

*New§  Item.     American  Physical  Education  Rmiew.     May,  1920,  p.  220. 


INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS  217 

1.  College  divisions 

a.  Class,  e.g.,  freshman,  sophomore,  junior,  senior 

6.    College,  e.g.,  agriculture,  arts,  engineering,  medicine 

c.  Department,  e.g.,  horticulture,  civil  engineering,  mechan- 

ical engineering 

d.  Combination  class,  college,  or   class  department,   e.g., 

freshman  agriculture,  sophomore  law,  junior  engineering, 
senior  arts 

2.  Social  organizations 

o.    Dormitories 

b.  Fraternities 

c.  Eating  clubs 

d.  Boarding  clubs 

3.  Special  college  groups 

a.  Literary  societies 

b.  Sports  clubs:    rowing,   cross   country,   tennis,   cricket, 

hockey,  siding,  etc. 

4.  Military  units  (especially  in  land  grant  colleges  and  universities) 

a.  Battalions 

b.  Companies 

5.  Miscellaneous  units  (loosely  organized  groups  with  no  bond  ex- 

cept the  name,  etc.) 

a.  Non-varsity  squads:  Reds,  Blues,  etc. 

b.  Pick-up  teams 

c.  Specially  organized  squads  of  men  who  have  to  be  pulled 

out 

6.  Special  organizations  with  standards  of  individual  excellence  in 

performance  prerequisite  to  membership 
Sigma  Delta  Psi  (athletic  fraternity) 

In  high  schools  and  secondary  schools  considerable 
intramural  activity  may  be  fostered.  It  is  helpful  to 
work  with  the  organizations  already  present  in  the  school. 
It  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  accomplish  worth  while 
results,  to  foster  a  special  organization  working  for  special 
ends.  The  Jungle  League  idea,  in  which  the  pupils  become 
members  of  different  units  with  names  of  wild  animals 
has  been  very  successful  in  some  places.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  devise  dramatic  ways  to  awaken  interest. 
Afterward  the  satisfying  nature  of  competitive  sports 
usually  will  be  sufficiently  attractive  to  secure  participa- 


218  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

tion.  Boys  at  a  certain  age  deem  it  a  great  privilege  to 
belong  to  the  Bears,  Panthers,  Tigers,  or  Bisons. 

Control  of  intramural  sports. — Intramural  sports  should 
not  repeat  the  history  of  varsity  sports.  That  record  has 
too  many  mistakes,  failures,  and  pitfalls.  The  organiza- 
tion, direction,  and  control  should  reside  in  departmental 
hands  because  all  sports  should  be  educational.  It  is 
important  that  physical  education  departments  recognize 
the  opportunity  for  leadership  training  and  be  awake  to 
its  possibilities,  but  in  no  sense  should  the  organization 
be  solely  a  student  affair.  Students  when  left  alone  to 
direct  an  organization  of  this  kind  make  the  usual  mis- 
takes and  errors  that  are  to  be  expected  from  the 
inexperienced,  the  immature,  and  the  enthusiastic.  These 
mistakes  would  be  of  no  moment  if  they  did  not  seriously 
imperil  the  development  of  the  social  and  moral  values 
inherent  in  sport.  These  values  require  wise  direction  if 
they  are  to  be  secured.  The  control,  direction,  and  super- 
vision may  reside  in  the  faculty  and  yet  the  wholesome 
support  of  the  student  body  may  be  secured. 

The  intramural  committee  reporting  on  this  phase  of 
the  problem  gives  the  following  question  and  answer: 

To  what  extent  are  intramural  activities  directly  and  actively  con- 
trolled by  physical  or  athletic  department  methods? 

Entirely 79  -  61% 

Partially 36  -  28% 

Not  at  all. 9-    7% 

Intercollegiate  coaches  only 4  -    3% 

Total  replies Ill  - 

Sports-for-all  requires  equipment  and  support. — Edu- 
cators frequently  indulge  in  the  intoxicating  game  of 
condemning  intercollegiate  or  interscholastic  athletics  and 
treat  their  audience  to  the  needs  of  a  program  of  athletics 
for  all.  It  is  important  to  understand  that  just  as  modern 
industrial  life,  modern  government,  and  modern  education 


INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS  219 

are  demanding  and  are  setting  new  standards  for  equip- 
ment and  support  in  order  to  carry  out  new  programs,  so 
in  the  physical  education  field  it  is  true  that  athletics  for 
all  will  remain  only  a  phrase  to  conjure  with  unless  definite 
and  intelligent  effort  is  given  to  providing  ways  and  means 
for  the  richer  program.  The  intramural  committee  re- 
ports on  the  drawbacks  encountered  in  developing  the 
intramural  idea: 

1.  Lack  of  facilities 87  -  65% 

2.  Lack  of  funds 80  -  59% 

3.  Lack  of  adequate  supervision 58  -  43% 

4.  Heavy  class  schedule 56  -  41% 

5.  Self  support  (students  earning  their  ex- 

penses)   49  -  36% 

6.  Counter  attractions 43  -  32% 

7.  Lack  of  student  interest 31  -  23% 

8.  Students  at  home  in  large  cities 26  -  19% 

9.  Other  reasons 15  -  11% 

10.    Faculty  opposition 12  -    9% 

Total  institutions  replying 134 

Total  answers 434 

Items  1,  2,  3,  4,  10  are  problems  of  concern  to  the 
institution  as  a  whole.  Items  6  and  7  are  of  primary 
concern  to  the  department  of  physical  education.  It  is 
their  failure  if  counter  attractions  and  lack  of  interest 
are  interfering  with  a  successful  program.  Items  5,  8  and 
9  may  be  determined  variously. 

The  future  for  intramural  sport. — The  intramural  com- 
mittee finds  that  72  per  cent  of  the  institutions  report 
progress,  and  especially  along  the  items  of  student  interest 
and  participation.  In  short  physical  educators  are  work- 
ing on  the  job  that  touches  them  most  directly.  Support 
from  the  faculties  and  provision  of  needed  equipment  and 
facilities  surely  will  be  forthcoming. 

The  future  will  be  determined  to  a  large  degree  by  the 
members  of  the  intramural  committee  who  are  so  defi- 


220  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

nitely  working  on  this  problem.    Their  conclusions  and 
recommendations,  therefore,  seem  worth  while: 

Conclusions. 

1.  Physical  directors  in  general  are  but  little  interested  in  intra- 
mural sport,  being  usually  advocates  of  intercollegiate  athletics  or 
gymnastics  with  a  limited  idea  of  the  educational  possibilities  involved 
in  mass  athletics. 

2.  Intramural  sport  in  many  colleges  has  made  great  strides  for- 
ward.   This  has  been  true  at  Ainherst,  Michigan,  Princeton,  Cornell, 
Ohio  State,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  California,  Texas,  Texas  A.  and  M., 
and  others. 

Although  it  has  been  of  great  service  in  bringing  out  men  for  com- 
petitive physical  exercise  and  recreative  sports,  its  possibility  in  regard 
to  universal  participation  for  the  attaining  of  ultimate  physiological, 
social,  and  moral  values  has  not  been  realized  as  yet  even  approximately 
except  in  rare  instances.  Until  further  facilities  and  supervision  are 
provided,  the  quantity  of  intramural  sport  cannot  be  greatly  increased 
in  some  institutions,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  field  is  far  from 
covered.  The  quality  can  be  attained  by  a  definite  exercise  require- 
ment for  every  student. 

3.  Strict,  intelligent,  enthusiastic  direction  and  leadership  is  neces- 
sary.   Such  direction  and  leadership  is  in  its  full  sense  a  one  man  job. 
The  man  needs  ample  facilities  and  much  real  assistance  to  work  out 
the  best  values.    With  proper  ability,  funds,  enthusiasm,  cooperation, 
and  facilities  one  man  can  interest  a  large  part  of  a  given  student  body 
in  valuable  intramural  sport. 

4.  Intercollegiate  athletics  by  furnishing  funds,  facilities,  incentive, 
and  direction  has  done  more  than  any  one  thing  to  make  possible  to 
the  leaders  in  physical  education  the  present  development  of  intramural 
sport.    This  intercollegiate  relationship  is  especially  true  west  of  the 
Alleghenies. 

5.  Intramural  sport  has  been  held  back  by  lack  of  vision,  informa- 
tion, funds,  facilities,  and  enthusiastic  leadership. 

6.  General  conclusion.    Intramural  athletics  is  not  advanced  as  a 
complete  system  of  physical  education.    It  will  reach  its  greatest  value 
as  a  part  of  the  graded  system  of  required  physical  training  in  colleges. 
It  will  add  to  the  more  formal  work  social  and  moral  factors,  enthusi- 
asm, and  competitive  zest. 

Recommendations. — There  should  be: 

1.  A  physical  education  and  recreation  requirement  of  at  least  two 
hours  per  week  for  every  student  throughout  his  college  course  to 
include  the  competitive  and  recreative  element  of  well  supervised  intra- 
mural sport. 


INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS  221 

2.  Definite  promotion  of  intramural  fighting  games  and  activities, 
e.g.,  boxing,  wrestling,  soccer,  basketball,  football,  etc. 

3.  Assignment  of  one  capable  and  enthusiastic  man  in  each  institu- 
tion to  the  position  of  director  of  intramural  sports. 

4.  Definite,  continued,  and  enthusiastic  promotion  of  mass  and 
group  athletics  until  the  idea  is  thoroughly  implanted  as  a  part  of  our 
system  of  physical  education. 

5.  An  adoption  of  the  ideas  contained  in  this  report,  wherever  they 
may  be  of  local  practical  application  whether  inside  or  outside  of 
colleges. 

Athletics  in  the  army  as  intramural  sport. — The  trend 
in  modern  physical  education  to  seek  natural  activities 
that  have  functioned  in  the  life  of  man  and  have  played 
a  part  in  producing  the  kind  of  being  that  man  is,  shows 
in  the  program  of  training  given  the  youths  who  were 
sent  into  the  training  camps  in  the  summer  and  fall  of 
1917.  The  old  formal  systems  found  no  place.  The 
setting  up  drill  was  retained  but  modified  from  tune  to 
time  and  to-day  it  has  less  sanction  in  the  army  than 
before  the  war.  In  1919  a  general  order  required  all 
officers  to  participate  in  athletics,  sports,  or  gymnastics 
one  hour  a  day. 

To  illustrate  the  type  of  training  used  in  the  army  and 
in  the  many  military  camps  for  boys  of  high  school  age 
and  to  suggest  thereby  the  sort  of  organization  of  mass 
athletics  that  is  possible,  the  following  report  of  activities 
(Fig.  12)  carried  on  at  the  military  training  camp  at 
Peekskill,  New  York,  in  the  summer  of  1917,  is  presented 
in  full.  About  eighteen  thousand  boys  were  given  regular 
daily  systematized  sport,  well  organized,  but  withal  spon- 
taneous and  interesting.  This  organization  in  reality  is 
intramural  in  the  sense  that  it  includes  all.  The  school 
or  college  that  will  promote  such  an  organization  for 
sports  will  find  the  usual  three  hours  a  week  in  the 
gymnasium  entirely  unsatisfactory. 

The  instructions  were  of  such  character  that  details 
were  cared  for;  the  organization  presented  a  smooth 


222 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


INTRAMURAL  ATHLETICS  223 

running  machine  and  efficiency  was  achieved.    Abstracts 
from  sheets  of  directions  show  the  following: 

TRACK 

Events. 

1.  Dashes — 30  minutes 

2.  High  jump — 30  minutes 

3.  Broad  jump — 30  minutes 

4.  Shot  put — 30  minutes 

Method. 

1.  Athletic  unit  is  platoon. 

2.  Know  rules  and  how  to  teach  events.    (If  you  do  not,  see  your 
assistant  director  or  director  for  instruction.) 

3.  Squads  change  places  every  thirty  minutes. 

4.  Don't  practice  all  the  period.   Spend  time  on  instruction,  study 
of  rules,  technique,  etc. 

Program. 

First  week — Practice. 

Second  week — Badge  test  (test  each  platoon)  using  standards  set 
in  state  training  syllabus. 


No 

50 

100 

Basis  of 

Points 

Points 

Points 

Scoring 

100  yards 

14f  sec. 

12f  sec. 

lOf  sec. 

j  sec.  5  pts. 

R.  broad  jump 

9  ft.  10  in. 

14ft. 

18  ft.  2  in. 

1  in.  1  pt. 

12-lb.  shot  put 

15ft. 

27  ft.  6  in. 

40ft. 

1  ft.  4  pts. 

R.  high  jump 

3ft.3Hn. 

4  ft.  4  in. 

5  ft.  4£  in. 

1  in.  4  pts. 

Third  week — Platoon  meets  within  same  company. 
Fourth  week — Dual  company  meets. 
Last  day — Big  intercompany  meet. 

DAILY  VOLUNTARY  SWIMMING  PERIODS  FOR  COMPANIES 

MON.  TUES.  WED.  THURS.  FRI.  SAT. 

4  00 

4.30  ^G-D  A-B    A-BC-D    E-F  I-K   A-B  C-D    L-M  I-K    L-M  C-D 

4.30. 

5.00.  G-H  I^M   G-HE-F    L-M  G-H  E-F  I-K    G-H  E-F    A-B    I-K 

5.00. 

5.30.      I-K  L-M  A-B  G-H  C-D  E-F 

1 .    Roll  call  to  be  made  on  beach  before  and  after  swimming  periods. 
Each  supervisor  checks  his  own  platoon. 


224  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

2.  life-saving  squad  of  twelve  of  the  best  swimmers  to  be  chosen 
from  each  company. 

3.  Non-swimmers    to    be    separated    and    put   into    groups    for 
instruction. 

4.  Swimmers  can  practice  events. 

5.  Events:   25-yard— breast   stroke,   free   style;   50-yard— breast 
stroke,  free  style;  relay;  special  events. 

Program 

First  week— Testing. 

Second  week — Intracompany  meets,  life-saving  instruction. 
Third  week — Dual  meets  between  two  companies. 
Fourth  week — Final  practice  for  big  intercompany  meet. 

MINOR  SPORTS 

1.  Hiking 

2.  Tennis 

3.  Basketball 

4.  Quoits 

5.  Volleyball 

6.  Handball 

7.  Soccer 

DUTIES  OF  RECREATIONAL  OFFICERS 

1.  Executive  Director,  G.  N.  Messer.    Responsible  for  the  operation 
of  the  recreational  program. 

2.  Special  Activity  Directors.    Baseball,  Mr.  Kelly.     Track,  Dr. 
C.  Ward  Crampton.    Swimming,  Mr.  Geer.    Minor  sports,  Dr.  Cobb. 
.    3.    Directors.    Know  the  schedule.    Instruct  the  assistant  directors. 
Responsible  for  the  operation  of  the  recreational  program  for  the  two 
companies  to  which  he  is  assigned. 

4.  Assistant  Directors.    Know  the  schedule.    Understand  the  game. 
See  that  the  supervisors  are  instructed  and  that  they  are  provided 
with  equipment.    Responsible  for  the  operation  of  the  program  for 
the  company  to  which  he  is  assigned. 

5.  Supervisors.     Know  the  schedule.     Know  the  rules  of  the 
game   or   where   to   get   them   quickly.     Organize   platoon   teams 
equitably  under  direction  of  the  assistant  director  of  the  company. 
Get  acquainted  with  each  boy  in  the  platoon  and  keep  track  of 
him  in  a  friendly  way.     Make  clean  sport  easy  and  attractive  to 
the  boy.     Responsible  for  the  operation  of  the  program  for  the 
platoon. 

Recreational  clubs — purpose. — Recreational  clubs  are 
groups  of  boys  or  girls  who  meet  after  school,  usually  two 


RECREATIONAL  CLUBS  225 

or  three  afternoons  and  Saturday,  to  participate  in  games, 
to  study  nature,  to  go  on  hikes,  to  go  camping,  and  to 
engage  in  wholesome,  natural  activities  in  general  recrea- 
tional forms.  A  great  impetus  to  recreation  was  given 
by  the  various  organizations  furthering  morale  in  the  army 
during  the  war.  The  idea  is  being  developed  to-day  in 
industry  (2).  The  school  is  the  logical  place  for  extensive 
development. 

Girls'  clubs  as  well  as  boys'  clubs  are  formed  and  carry 
on  similar  activities.  The  leaders  of  clubs  of  this  kind 
are  special  teachers,  engaged  for  this  work.  At  times 
they  are  regular  teachers  in  the  school  who  see  the  wonder- 
ful opportunities  for  body  building  and  character  training, 
and  at  times  the  physical  education  teacher  heads  the 
work  with  pupil  leaders  only.  There  is  no  reason  why 
this  last  arrangement  could  not  be  worked  out  if  the 
physical  education  teacher  had  time  properly  to  admin- 
ister the  organization  necessary  and  to  supervise  the 
activities  with  all  the  care  that  is  involved  in  the  training 
of  leaders.  In  the  opinion  of  Professor  Snedden  (3) 
"  l pupil  leaders'  should  head  all  squads.  Certain  forms 
of  regimentation  will  be  essential,  but  only  the  colonels, 
let  us  say,  need  be  salaried  officers;  from  corporal  to 
captain  voluntary  leaders,  often  changing,  should  be 
utilized." 

Program  of  Horace  Mann  recreational  clubs. — Club 
work  in  the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School  is  devoted 
mainly  to  outdoor  games  and  hikes,  with  weekly  indoor 
meetings  to  determine  the  program  for  the  clubs.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  self  determination  as  a  prin- 
ciple is  important  and  valuable  in  club  organization  even 
though  its  value  in  international  arrangements  is  not  a 
settled  question.  As  typical  of  the  programs  of  all  the 
clubs  the  following  outline  of  activities  selected  by  fifth 
grade  boys  is  presented : 


226  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

1.  Indoor  group 

This  part  of  the  program  is  concerned  with: 

a.  Club  essentials,  such  as  club  purpose  and  promise,  club 

spirit,    club    leadership,    club    obedience,    and    club 
recognition 

b.  Games  (indoor  for  rainy  days) 

Standards  for  accomplishment  are  set. 

c.  Rope  work 

Learn  to  tie  different  knots,  animal  ties,  to  throw  a  life 
line,  etc. 

d.  Originals 

Write  a  story  about  a  hike,  devise  a  song  or  yell,  or 
suggest  some  plan  for  club  improvement. 

e.  Exercise  and  hygiene 

In  this  group  are  included  tumbling,  daily  habits  of 
exercise,  and  personal  hygiene. 

2.  Playground  group 

Different  standards  are  set  up  and  marks  to  be  reached  in 
games,  track  events,  first  aid,  and  various  safety  measures. 

3.  Nature  lore  group 

Here  the  boy  is  stimulated  to  achieve  ability  in  reorganizing, 
collecting  and  knowing  the  habits  of  objects  in  nature.  The 
list  includes  trees,  flowers,  birds,  rocks,  insects,  and  animals. 

4.  Camp  craft  group 

The  arts  of  signaling,  firebuilding,  cooking,  reading,  and  travel- 
ing by  compass  are  the  chief  standards,  detailed  as  regards 
rules  and  procedure. 

5.  Cooperation  group 

This  group  includes  many  activities  developed  on  hikes,  on 
the  playground,  in  dramatics,  and  in  club  practice  (parlia- 
mentary procedure). 

The  club  idea  gives  activity  and  if  the  supervision  is 
effective  and  intelligent  the  results  flowing  out  of  the 
activity  are  wholesome.  There  will  be  normal  physical 
development,  awakened  and  satisfying  mental  action,  and 
desirable  social  attitudes  and  responses. 

Girls'  recreational  clubs. — The  possibilities  in  group 
organization  to  enrich  the  play  life  of  the  child  are  tre- 
mendous when  the  club  idea  is  well  developed.  The 


RECREATIONAL  CLUBS 


227 


girls'  clubs  of  the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School  have 
developed  splendid  ideas  and  point  the  way  to  the  oppor- 
tunities in  this  field. 

During  1920,  Grades  III  and  IV  were  combined  in  one 
club  under  a  club  leader  trained  in  physical  education. 
Working  with  the  girls,  the  group  decided  to  keep  a  record 
of  the  activities  of  the  club  members  and  record  on  a 
chart  the  gains  made  by  each  member.  For  this  purpose 
the  girls  selected  certain  animals  and  then  decided  what 
characteristic  qualities  the  animals  possessed  that  would 
be  worth  striving  to  gain.  At  meetings  of  the  club  each 


DOG 

SQUIRREL 

CRICKET 

ELEPHANT 

BEAVER 

FISH 

BEE 

DEER 

Faithful 

Quick 

Happy 

Patient 

Industrious 

Minnow 

Willing 

Active 

Loyal 

Alert 

Cheerful 

Enduring 

Earnest 

See 

Workers 

Ready 

True 

Friendly 

Clean 

Calm 

Always  to 

Swimming 

Helpers 

On  the  Watch 

Affectionate 

Thrifty 

Trim 

Peaceful 

Complete 

Tests 

Persevering 

Careful 

Sincere 

Conscien- 

Things 

Cooperative 

Obedient 

tious 

Started 

Do  Well 

Forgiving 

Know  How 

Acknowledge 

Considerate 

Wrong 

Courageous 

Name 

HI    «&• 

I 

II 

I 

I 

I 

<jQMn 

^M 

I 

I 

Fig.  13.    The  criteria  were  determined  by  the  girls.    Such  procedure  favors  cooperation 
and  enthusiastic  support. 

member  was  discussed  as  to  her  improvement  in  play 
and  other  club  activities  and  if  one  showed  marked 
ability  she  was  awarded  a  stripe.  After  three  stripes 
were  earned  under  any  heading,  the  head  of  that  animal 
was  placed  on  the  chart.  The  record  kept  in  chart  form 
and  retained  in  the  club  room  served  as  a  constant 
stimulus  to  the  members  to  develop  certain  qualities. 
The  diagram  in  figure  13  gives  the  annuals  selected  and  the 
qualities  belonging  to  those  animals  which  seemed  worth 
striving  for  to  the  girls. 

The  names  of  the  club  members  are  entered  in  the 
appropriate  column.     Whenever  a  member  is  voted  by 


228  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

the  club  to  possess  and  show  qualities  as  listed  above  a 
mark  is  placed  under  the  animal  indicated.  When  three 
marks  are  received  the  member  receives  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing the  head  of  the  animal  entered  on  the  chart. 

This  type  of  chart  is  very  valuable  for  developing 
certain  desirable  attitudes.  It  should  be  supplemented 
with  other  charts  giving  specific  things  to  accomplish, 
such  as  lighting  a  fire  with  only  two  matches,  making 
a  blanket  roll,  etc. 

The  emblem  of  the  fish  was  won  by  successfully  passing 
the  test  for  swimming  that  was  worked  out  in  progression 
and  used  by  all  the  clubs.  The  minnow  qualifications 
were  set  for  the  third  and  fourth  grade  club. 

SWIMMING  TESTS 
(arranged  in  progression) 
Minnow 

1.  Swim  ten  strokes 

2.  Swim  one  stroke,  face  under,  three  over,  two  under 

3.  Jump  from  edge  of  pool  into  water  up  to  shoulders 

4.  Swim  breast  stroke  (fair  form) 

5.  Fetch  up  puck  (water  waist  high) 

Perch 

1.  Swim  across  pool  (thirty  feet) 

2.  Swim  across  pool,  alternating  face  under  three  and  over  three 

3.  Jump  from  edge  and  swim  across 

4.  Swim  breast  stroke  (good  form) 

5.  Swim  side  stroke  (fair  form) 

Pickerel 

1.  Swim  length  of  pool  (sixty  feet) 

2.  Swim  side  stroke  (good  form) 

3.  Dive  at  deep  end 

4.  Pick  up  puck  from  deep  end,  three  tunes 

5.  Know  three  strokes  and  tell  when  each  is  to  be  used 

6.  Float,  turn  over,  swim  length  of  pool 

7.  Swim  under  water  eight  strokes 

8.  Swim  on  back  sixty  feet 

9.  Demonstrate  breast,  crawl,  and  side  strokes  (on  land) 
10.  Demonstrate  in  water  two  methods  of  carrying 


RECREATIONAL  CLUBS  229 

Salmon 

1.  Swim  four  lengths  of  pool 

2.  Dive  from  second  step  (about  five  feet  from  water) 

3.  Tread  water  one  minute 

4.  Turn  somersault  in  water 

5.  Swim  three  standard  styles  in  good  form  (side,  overarm,  crawl, 

breast) 

6.  Demonstrate  (on  land)  five  methods  of  release  from  a  person 

7.  Demonstrate  (in  the  water)  two  methods  of  release  from  a  person 

8.  Demonstrate  (in  the  water)  three  methods  of  carrying  a  person 

Shark 

1.  Swim  eight  lengths  of  pool 

2.  Do  three  standard  dives 

3.  Dp  two  fancy  dives 

4.  Dive  into  seven  feet  of  water  and  bring  up  five  pound  weight 

5.  Swim  twenty  yards  carrying  person  of  own  weight.    (Demon- 

strate three  methods) 

6.  Demonstrate  (in  the  water)  three  methods  of  release 

7.  Dressed — swim  sixty  yards — undress  in  deep  water 

8.  Teach  one  person  how  to  swim 

9.  Teach  one  person  how  to  dive 

10.  Demonstrate  entire  method  of  Schaefer  resuscitation.     Pass 

written  test 

11.  Throw  a  life  line 

12.  Throw  a  life  buoy 

13.  Demonstrate  racing  turn 

These  tests  represent  very  graphically  the  club  idea — 
standards  and  competition.  The  results  are  sustained 
interest,  active  participation,  and  hence  generous  growth. 

The  different  clubs  evolved  different  programs  hi  accord- 
ance with  the  characteristics  of  the  group.  The  fifth 
and  sixth  grade  club  worked  along  three  lines,  as  indi- 
cated below: 

1.  Honor  chart 

This  chart  was  evolved  from  the  scout  idea  and  used,  in 
modified  form,  honors  selected  from  the  manuals  of  the  Camp 
Fire  Girls  and  the  Woodcraft  League. 

2.  Science  club 

Charts  earned  here  are  of  value  chiefly  as  they  relate  to 
out-of-door  activity* 


230  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

3.    Nature  study 

The  study  of  nature  produced  three  projects: 

a.  Bird  project^— developed  through  sunrise  bird  hike,  record  on 

chart  of  birds  seen  and  recognized,  visits  to  headquarters 
of  the  Audubon  Society  and  natural  history  museum. 

b.  Flower  project — developed  by  trip  to  country  with  selection 

and  study  of  wild  flowers,  and  by  record  on  chart  of 
flowers  as  they  appeared  in  the  spring. 

C.  Tree  project — developed  by  watching  the  budding  of  trees 
and  placing  on  chart  record  when  buds  are  seen.  The 
tree  chart  contained  name  of  the  tree,  place  found,  date, 
and  name  of  the  finder. 

The  high  school  girls  were  organized  into  Girl  Scout 
troops.  Regular  Scout  programs  were  carried  out. 

Camping  and  hiking  activities. — The  Boy  Scout  and 
Girl  Scout  movements  have  brought  a  program  to  the 
boy  and  girl  that  touches  at  once  natural  instincts  and 
real  desires.  Participation  in  that  program  yields  many 
values  not  the  least  of  which  is  interest  in  physical 
education.  The  school  without  a  Scout  organization  is 
missing  rich  opportunities  for  development  of  desirable 
traits  of  character,  health  habits,  and  interest  in  whole- 
some forms  of  recreation. 

Hiking  parties  may  be  organized  for  Saturdays  and 
camping  parties  for  longer  periods  at  vacation  times.  Dr. 
Stecher,  Director  of  Physical  Education,  Philadelphia,  has 
developed  hiking  in  the  program  of  the  Wanderlust  clubs. 
Work  for  country  children  needs  extensive  development. 
What  can  be  done  for  this  large  group  of  our  population  is 
indicated  by  Scudder  (4)  hi  his  description  of  the  play  pic- 
nic. The  department  of  recreation  of  Oakland,  California, 
has  developed  splendid  camping  opportunities  for  the  com- 
munity. In  some  schools  groups  go  to  a  school  camp  for 
Saturday  and  Sunday.  Dartmouth  College  has  received 
as  a  gift  from  an  alumnus  a  group  of  camps  surrounding 
Hanover  and  situated  about  a  day's  hike  from  the  col- 
lege. It  may  be  expected  that  the  public  school,  as  well  as 


CAMPING  AND  HIKING  231 

private  school  and  college,  will  foster  the  establishment  of 
school  camps.*  This  public  school  field  is  taken  care  of  in 
part  by  the  Scout  movement,  but  even  this  splendid  organ- 
ization is  not  providing  all  that  is  needed  in  this  respect. 
To  enlist  more  completely  in  wholesome  forms  of  rec- 
reation** the  high  school  boy  and  girl  in  the  adolescent 
years  is  of  great  moment  (5).  Cromie  (6)  has  presented 
valuable  material  that  is  extremely  useful  for  large  groups. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  Report  of  Committee  on  Intramural  Sport,  Athletic  Research 

Society,  December  27,  1917,  Reprinted,  American  Physical 
Education  Review,  April  and  May,  1918. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Status  of  Physical  Education,  Hygiene, 
and  Athletics  in  American  Colleges,  American  Physical  Edu- 
cation Review,  November,  1921,  p.  374. 

Careful  studies  and  valuable  reports. 

2.  KALLENBERG,  H.  F.    The  Problem  of  Health  and  Recreation  in 

Industrial  Fields,  International  Committee  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  347 
Madison  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

A  booklet  of  valuable  information  on  organization,  procedure, 
and  material  for  group  recreation. 

3.  SNEDDEN,  DAVID.    School  and  Society,  Vol.  XI,  No.  280,  pp. 

541-550,  May  8;  No.  281,  pp.  575-582,  May  15;  and  No. 
282,  pp.  601-606,  May  22,  1920. 

A  very  stimulating  article  on  the  objectives  of  physical  educa- 
tion. Dr.  Snedden  values  lightly  the  goal  usually  sought  for 
in  physical  education.  It  is  not  essential  to  agree  with  this 
article;  it  is  important  to  get  the  point  of  view. 

4.  SCUDDER,  M.  T.   Field  Day  and  Play  Picnic  for  Country  Children, 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York,  1908. 
A  suggestive  pamphlet  to  rural  workers. 

5.  FRETWELL,  E.  K.    "Education  for  Leadership;  Training  Citi- 

zens Through  Recreation."  Teachers  College  Record,  Septem- 
ber, 1919,  Vol.  XX,  No.  4. 

An  exposition  of  one  method  for  training  citizens.  An  exceed- 
ingly important  paper. 

6.  CROMIE,  W.  J.    Group  Contests  for  the  Army,  Navy,  and  School, 

The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1918. 
CROMIE,  W.  J.    Group  Contests  for  the  Playground  and  School, 
The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1920. 

*  Summer  Camp — Municipal  and  Industrial.     Community  Service  Inc.,  1  Madison  Ave., 
New  York  City. 
**  Kephart.    Camping  and  Woodcraft.    Woodcraft  League  of  America,  Inc.,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

EXCUSES,  SUBSTITUTIONS,  CREDIT,  ATTENDANCE, 

ROLL  TAKING,  AND  GRADING  FOR  PHYSICAL 

EDUCATION  CLASSES 

Excuses  from  requirement  in  physical  education. — 
There  are  unfortunate  individuals  with  chronic  heart 
disease,  orthopedic  deformity  or  defect,  and  other  physical 
handicaps  who  are  unable  to  pursue  the  school  require- 
ment in  physical  education.  This  situation  should  be 
handled  carefully  and  thoughtfully.  The  practice  of 
granting  an  unqualified  excuse  is  not  to  be  approved 
because  often  these  individuals  are  able  to  satisfy  a 
modified  requirement  that  would  be  beneficial  to  them. 
Because  of  their  physical  condition  they  have  probably 
been  excused  from  responsibilities  all  their  lives.  It  is 
important  therefore  that  whenever  possible  these  indi- 
viduals with  physical  handicaps  be  held  up  to  a  require- 
ment exacting  in  the  sense  of  responsibility  involved  but 
modified  to  meet  the  physical  limitations  of  particular 
cases. 

Such  procedure  assumes  that  the  director  or  person  in 
charge  is  a  physician  or  has  the  advice  and  cooperation 
of  medical  service  in  handling  such  cases. 

Excuses  given  by  the  family  physician. — One  of  the 
most  troublesome  problems  with  which  the  director  of 
physical  education  has  to  deal  is  the  excuse  from  the 
requirement  hi  physical  education  given  by  the  family  phy- 
sician. These  excuses  are  often  based  on  the  poor  physical 

232 


EXCUSES  233 

condition  of  the  individual  and  are  frequently  unjustified. 
Wherever  this  practice  is  accepted  by  the  director,  the 
percentage  of  such  excuses  will  be  high.  Whenever  a 
system  is  devised  to  meet  and  overcome  this  practice, 
the  number  of  applicants  even  will  be  greatly  lessened. 

Two  methods  are  available  for  solving  this  adminis- 
trative problem:  1.  If  the  director  is  a  physician,  he 
may  reserve  the  right  to  pass  upon  the  fitness  of  the 
student  for  the  required  work.  If  he  handles  the  problem 
tactfully,  he  need  not  stand  upon  his  authority  in  this 
respect  but  by  cooperation  with  the  family  physician  he 
can  eliminate  all  fraudulent  excuses  and  secure  hi  addition 
real  insight  into  the  student's  condition  by  receiving 
valuable  information  from  the  family  physician.  The 
following  blank  used  at  the  University  of  Cincinnati  indi- 
cates a  desirable  form  to  be  filled  by  the  family  physician: 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CINCINNATI 

Department  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Education 

HEALTH  EXAMINATION 

This  blank  is  to  be  filled  out  by  a  physician*  and  sent  by  him 


directly  to  Dr.  Jesse  Feiring  Williams,  Professor  of  Hygiene  and 
Physical  Education. 

To  the  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Education: 

I  have  this  day  given  M 

a  careful  physical  examination  and  find  h in health. 

The  lungs  are 

There  are signs  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

The  heart  is 

The  abdominal  viscera  are Hernia 

The  condition  of  the  nose  and  throat  is 

The  condition  of  the  nervous  system  is 

Are  there  symptoms  of  eye-strain? 

The  skin  is 

Are  there  orthopedic  diseases  or  defects  present? 

The  posture  is 

Are  there  any  abnormalities  from  injuries? 


*In  answering  questions,  please  use  the  term  negative  where  the  con- 
dition is  normal.    Do  not  leave  the  space  blank. 


234  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Do  you  consider  the  applicant  in  a  state  of  health  to  stand 
the  test  of  college  work? ^ 

As  a  result  of  the  foregoing  examination  or  previous  knowledge 
of  the  applicant's  health,  have  you  any  suggestions  that  may  help 
the  department  in  assisting  the  applicant  to  develop  and  main- 
tain a  high  standard  of  physical  efficiency? 


Signature M .  D. 

Date Address 

It  is  very  desirable  that  your  family  physician  attend  to  this 
examination. 

2.  When  a  physician  is  not  available  for  departmental 
work  the  number  of  fraudulent  excuses  may  be  decreased 
by  organizing  a  method  for  reporting  the  excuse  through 
the  principal  or  president  of  the  institution  and  throwing 
back  upon  the  physician  the  responsibility  of  excusing 
the  student  to  the  head  of  the  school  and  not  in  a  general 
way  to  the  "gym  teacher."  A  splendid  method  has  been 
described  as  follows:  (1) 

This  form  of  excuse  is  in  three  parts,  consisting  of:  First,  a 
letter  sent  by  the  director  of  physical  training  to  the  school  princi- 
pal, stating  that  Miss believes  herself 

physically  unable  to  take  the  required  work  and  wishes  to  be 
excused;  second,  a  letter  from  the  principal  to  the  girl's  family 
physician;  and  third,  a  space  for  the  physician's  letter,  which 
must  be  returned  by  mail  to  the  principal. 

SPRINGFIELD  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Springfield,  Massachusetts 
DEPARTMENT  OP  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  GIRLS 

AMY  R.  HILL,  Director 
Mr 

Principal High  School 

DEAR  SIR: 

The  bearer,  Miss believes  herself 

physically  unable  to  do  the  required  work  in  physical  training. 


EXCUSES  235 

Such  work  for  her  would  consist  of  one  hour  per  week  of  one  of 

the  following  out-of-door  sports : 

during  September,  October,  May,  and  June,  and  two  periods  per 
week  of  gymnastics  and  dancing  from  November  to  April, 
inclusive. 

Miss 's  physical  examination  shows 

Yours  very  truly. 

19 ....         Director. 

Dr 

DEAR  SIR: 

In  the  following  blank  will  you  kindly  give  your  professional 
opinion  concerning  the  bearer's  health  and  ability  to  do  all  or  part 
of  the  required  physical  work  mentioned  above? 

Please  specify  any  organic  or  functional  disease  from  which  she 
is  suffering.  All  information  will  be  considered  strictly  con- 
fidential. 

If  you  consider  some  form  of  individual  work  would  be  more 
beneficial  in  this  case,  the  director  will  be  glad  to  confer  with  you 
at  any  time  you  may  name. 

Please  return  this  blank  to  me  by  mail. 

Yours  very  truly, 
19 Principal. 

PHYSICIAN'S  CERTIFICATE 
Certificate  accepted ,19 Principal. 

It  is  reported  that  the  use  of  the  above  method  at 
Newton,  Mass.,  has  reduced  the  number  of  excuses  50 
per  cent.  This  form  is  in  use  in  Boston  and  other  New 
England  cities. 

The  same  general  type  of  blank  is  used  in  New  York 
State.  It  is  superior  in  the  form  to  be  filled  out  by  the 
family  physician. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 
The  State  Department  of  Education 

May  20,  1920 
To  Directors  of  Physical  Education: 

Outlined  below  you  will  find  a  suggested  letter  that  may  be  found 
helpful  in  securing  cooperation  of  family  physicians.  Your  superin- 


236  PHYSICAL'EDUCATION 

tendent  may  be  interested  in  having  you  do  something"  similar.  We 
also  inclose  a  suggested  form  of  report  blank  for  the  physician  to  return. 
Hoping  that  this  may  be  of  some  use  to  you  in  your  work  for  the 
physically  handicapped  children  and  with  the  problem  of  unnecessary 
excuses  from  regular  classes,  I  am 

Very  truly  yours 

DANIEL  CHASE 
Acting  Supervisor?/  Physical  Education 

DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  , 
Office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools^ 

, ._ .19.... 

Dr... 


MY  DEAR  DOCTOR: 

Your  request  that be  excused 

from  physical  training  is  before  me. 

All  pupils  in  our  schools  take  work  in  physical  education  as  required 
by  the  program  of  the  Regents  of  The  University  of  the  State  of  New 
York. 

The  work  includes  a  large  number  of  mild  exercises  which  are  in- 
tended to  improve  posture,  and  do  not  accelerate  the  heart  or  mate- 
rially affect  the  blood  pressure,  besides  heavy  exercises,  involving  con- 
siderable vasodilation  and  increased  heart  rate.  In  addition  to  these 
exercises,  all  pupils  receive  practical  instruction  in  hygiene.  Recrea- 
tional games  and  rhythmic  activities  are  provided  through  which  many 
valuable  social  and  moral  qualities  are  inculcated  as  well  as  grace  of 
movement  and  muscular  coordination  developed.  We  believe  every 
pupil  able  to  attend  school  should  be  allowed  to  receive  some  of  the 
benefits  from  this  work. 

Would  you  be  so  kind  as  to  furnish  the  director  of  physical  education 
on  the  attached  blank  such  details  of  diagnosis  as  you  consider  perti- 
nent, and  let  him  know  as  fully  as  possible  what  class  of  our  work  you 
deem  it  necessary  to  modify  or  eliminate,  and  what  other  precautions 
should  be  exercised? 

Your  communications  will  be  held  in  professional  confidence,  and 
your  fullest  cooperation  is  solicited. 


Principal 
Director  of  Physical  Education 


EXCUSES 


237 


Director  of  Physical  Education 
Department  of  Education 

DEAR  SIR: 
Will  you  kindly  adjust  the  program  of  physical  education  of 

a  pupil  in 

School,  in  accordance  with  schedule  below,  on  account  of  (diagnosis) 

There  should  be  special  emphasis  placed  upon  exercises  leading  to 

the  improvement  of  Yes  No 

Drooping  head  . 
Flat  chest  .  .  . 
Round  shoulders. 
Uneven  shoulders 
Flat  feet  .... 

The  following  features  of  physical  training  work  should  be  em- 
phasized : 

1  Vigorous  trunk,  leg,  back,  shoulder  exercises  (for  local  and 

general  weakness)                                     Yes           No 
(Specify) 

2  Exercises  to  relieve  chronic  constipation.    Yes  No 

3  Exercises  increasing  neuro-muscular  control  and  coordination 

(for  cases  of  motor  ineptitude  or  dullness)  (Note:  These 
exercises  are  mild  and  do  not  increase  heart  rate,  or  materially 
affect  blood  pressure)  Yes  No 

4  Recreative  exercises:  play  etc.,  with  little  attention  strain  (to  be 

emphasized  in  cases  neurasthenic  tendency)   Yes  No 

5  Other  features  of  exercise  to  be  emphasized : 


The  following  are  contra-indicated:  (mark  below) 
Omit 

1  Exercises  causing  marked  increase  in  heart  rate 

2  Exercises  of  the  trunk 

3  Exercises  involving  mechanical  jar  (jumping) 

4  Exercises  increasing  abdominal  tension  (hernia  cases) 

5  Exercises  of  the  legs 

6  Exercises  of  the  arms 

Specific  recommendations  regarding  the  above  exercises: 


238  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Recommendations  in  regard  to  stair  climbing: 

Other  recommendations  and  remarks : 

Pupil  should  report  to  me  again  in weeks,  about  (date) .  .  . 


[Telephone  no.] [Signed] M.  D. 

[Address] 


Substitution  of  other  work  for  the  requirement  in 
physical  education. — It  should  be  held  as  a  policy  of  the 
department  that  no  excuse  can  be  accepted  in  the  sense 
that  the  required  work  can  be  missed  unless  other  work 
approved  and  definitely  prescribed  be  substituted  for  it. 
This  applies  in  principle  to  pupils  excused  by  the  family 
physician  because  they  dislike  the  work  or  are  physically 
unfit,  or  excused  by  reason  of  illness  or  accident.  The 
attempt  should  be  to  develop  a  sense  of  responsibility 
for  meeting  the  requirements  in  an  institution  of  which 
the  student  is  a  part  and  while  aiming  at  that  end,  the 
director  should  provide  a  method  for  controlling  those 
individuals  who  do  not  respond. 

Different  kinds  of  substitutions  are  at  present  allowed. 
Not  all  of  them  can  be  approved. 

1.  Substitution  requirement  in  some  schools  pro- 
vides that  the  student  must  read  a  minimum  number 
of  hours  on  assignments  in  hygiene  and  physiology 
and  pass  an  examination.   This  substitution  is  vicious. 
Too  frequently  it  means  that  students  whose  academic 
program  is  overloaded  already  are  given  an  additional 
burden.     It  errs  also  in  assuming  that  the  substitu- 
tion in  type  or  quality  is  representative,  as  it  should 
be,  of  the  work  missed. 

2.  Substitution  requirement  of  walking  in  general 
is  often  allowed.    It  has  marked  defects  if  it  is  applied 
to  all.     Walking  may  or  may  not  be  the  activity 
most  beneficial.     General  aimless  walking  is  likely 
not  to  be  worth  much. 


SUBSTITUTIONS  239 

3.  Substitution  requirement  of  breathing  exer- 
cises is  at  times  provided.  It  has  no  defense  at  all 
as  a  blanket  substitution.  Breathing  exercises  are 
unphysiological  in  most  cases  and  unless  prescribed 
for  individual  needs  and  given  special  guidance, 
they  are  worthless  as  a  substitution. 

The  only  kind  of  substitution  that  may  be  sanc- 
tioned is  the  kind  that  is  made  with  reference  to  the 
needs  of  the  individual.  Some  of  the  common  needs 
and  desirable  ways  of  substitution  are  given  below: 

1.  Heart  cases.  These  individuals  represent  two 
types :  organic  heart  cases  and  functional  heart  cases. 

The  organic  lesions  are  benefited  .by  proper  exer- 
cises (2).  Walks  of  stated  distances  may  be  used 
and  the  results  carefully  watched  with  reference  to 
modification  of  the  distance,  route,  or  time  (3). 

The  functional  cases  seen  in  school  fall  into  two 
groups : 

a.  The ' '  adolescent ' '  heart  needs  exercise  up  to  the 
point  of  fatigue.     No  competition  should  be  allowed. 

b.  The  weak  heart,  often  irregular  in  rate  and 
force,  requires  gradually  increasing  amount  of  exer- 
cise.   These  cases  are  at  times  representative  of  the 
group  of  cases  known  as  disordered  action  of  the  heart 
as  seen  in  the  World  War.    They  often  are  individuals 
with  constitutional  inferiority.    Their  cardiac  exer- 
cises need  careful  supervision. 

The  important  point  in  dealing  with  these  cases  is 
to  remember  that  the  heart  is  a  muscle,  that  it  is 
strengthened  by  exercise,  that  inactivity  in  most 
cases  is  harmful,  and  that  the  activity  must  be  guided 
and  controlled  with  reference  to  individual  need  and 
individual  response  (4) .  At  Barnard  College, ' '  weak ' ' 
heart  cases  have  been  improved  by  swimming  as  a 
substitution. 


240  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

2.  Foot  cases.     Individuals  seek  excuses  at  times 
because  of  weak  feet  or  falling  arches. 

The  substitution  for  most  of  these  cases  is  correc- 
tive foot  exercises.  Some  very  bad  cases  need  other 
orthopedic  treatment  but  usually  such  severe  cases 
do  not  reach  the  director.  McKenzie  (3)  proposes 
rational  exercises  for  this  condition.  The  possibility 
of  using  exercises  in  the  sitting  or  lying  position 
should  not  be  forgotten. 

3.  General  physical  weakness.     Individuals  often 
seek  excuse  from  the  requirement  in  physical  educa- 
tion because  of  the  type  of  work  offered  by  the 
department.     No   sympathy   can   be   extended    a 
department  that  requires  advanced  types  of  appara- 
tus work  for  girls,  and  every  sane  physician  is  eager 
to  help  the  girl  escape  such  "physical  training."    On 
the  other  hand,  with  a  rational  program  even,  it  is 
not  unusual  to  find  students  with  poor  bodies  as  a 
result  of  a  woeful  lack  of  physical  exercise  combined 
with  poor  hygiene,  seeking  an  excuse.    They  are  not 
able  to  do  the  required  work.    They  need  a  special 
class.    Such  a  class  should  be  provided. 

Individuals  convalescing  from  a  severe  disease  or 
from  an  operation  often  need  a  substitution  which  may 
for  several  weeks  best  be  given  in  the  form  of  walk- 
ing out-of-doors  a  stated  distance  at  a  stated  tune. 

4.  Girls  with  uterine-ovarian  disturbances.    A  con- 
siderable number  of  excuses  are  offered  on  the  basis 
of  disturbance  of  the  function  of  menstruation.    It  is 
unfortunate  that  some  women  look  upon  a  physio- 
logical process  as  something  abnormal  or  unusual. 
Every  effort  should  be  directed  to  helping  the  girl 
achieve  a  rational  point  of  view  on  this  question. 
Excuses  at  the  monthly  period  are  discussed  on 
page  245. 


SUBSTITUTIONS  241 

Unless  there  is  definite  inflammation  resulting 
from  infection  or  displacement,  all  these  cases  will  be 
greatly  improved  by  the  general  effects  of  moderate 
exercises  combined  with  special  breathing  exercises 
as  suggested  by  Dr.  Mosher  (5).  Dr.  Mosher  would 
treat  all  cases  of  dysmenorrhea  with  exercise,  but 
the  opinion  of  most  gynecologists  would  exclude  from 
such  activity  cases  showing  inflammation.  Bolton 
(6),  Fox  (7),  and  Hollingsworth  (8)  are  worth  con- 
sideration on  this  subject. 

5.  Cripples.  Individuals  who  have  a  healed 
deformity  of  the  legs  or  arms  may  be  required  to 
substitute  swimming  if  a  pool  is  available.  It  is  not 
impossible  for  a  one-armed  person  to  swim  and  a 
person  with  only  one  leg  may  accomplish  a  creditable 
performance.  A  substitution  in  all  such  cases  may 
be  made  if  the  director  is  interested  to  do  the  most 
for  the  individual. 

Instances  of  request  for  substitution  of  athletics  or 
military  drill  for  physical  education  classes  are  not 
unusual.  It  is  the  prevailing  opinion  to-day  that 
athletics  in  any  or  all  its  forms  may  be  substituted 
if  the  individual  can  pass  an  efficiency  test  (see 
page  56).  If  he  cannot  pass  the  test  and  the  coach 
desires  his  attendance,  it  is  customary  to  sanction 
the  substitution  for  the  particular  sport  requested. 

Military  drill  presents  a  different  problem.  Lessons 
are  to  be  learned  from  the  effort  (9)  made  so  many 
times  and  in  so  many  places,  to  foist  military  drill 
upon  the  school  as  a  substitute  for  physical  education. 
It  can  never  be  a  substitute  in  the  sense  that  it  seeks 
or  secures  the  aims  and  results  of  modern  physical 
education.  Its  substitution  should  not  be  permitted 
unless  for  very  urgent,  patriotic,  and  emergency 
reasons  that  require  the  time  of  physical  education 


242  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

for  the  purpose  of  achieving  in  drill  certain  formations 
and  company  training  immediately  essential  for  war. 
Administration  of  special  cases. — The  trained  teacher 
of  physical  education  should  be  able  to  administer  the 
special  prescription  for  foot  and  spine  conditions  where 
special  appliances  are  not  required.  Cases  of  heart,  lung, 
utero-ovarian,  or  post-operative  conditions  call  for  direct 
medical  supervision.  In  no  case  should  the  physical 
educator  assume  the  responsibility  for  differential  diag- 
nosis. Readiness  to  carry  out  directions  specifically  given 
by  the  family  or  school  physician  may  be  expected. 
Selected  references  (2-8)  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  give 
the  special  procedure  for  the  usual  cases  met  in  the  admin- 
istration of  physical  education. 

Questionnaire  data. — A  questionnaire  (10)*  sent  to  a 
hundred  leading  colleges  and  universities  in  all  sections 
of  the  United  States  showed  that  students  who  were 
physically  unfit  to  do  the  required  work  were  cared  for 
in  the  following  manner : 

1.  Excused  from  work  entirely 17.1% 

2.  Assignment  to  special  classes 45.7% 

3.  Other  methods 

a.  Personal  consultations 1.9% 

b.  Allowed  to  substitute  other  credit 2.8% 

c.  Left  to  own  devices 1.9% 

d.  Walking 1.9% 

e.  Special  work  or  excused 24.1% 

4.  No  answer 4.6% 

Credit. — The  department  of  physical  education  should 
be  able  to  offer  work  of  a  character  that  would  warrant 
credit,  either  in  school  or  college.  With  a  conception  of 
education  as  adjustment  to  life  and  with  modern  physical 
education  emphasizing  the  development  of  attitudes, 
ideals,  standards  of  conduct,  as  well  as  physical  fitness, 

*  From  Department  of  Physical  Education,  Teachers  College.     Practieum  in  Physical 
Education.     Work  of  Harry  A.  Scott. 


CREDIT  243 

it  is  becoming  more  clear  that  credit  toward  the  A.  B. 
and  B.  S.  degrees  in  college  may  properly  be  given. 

Credit  for  the  work  of  physical  education  is  of  value 
because: 

1.  It    holds    the    department    up    to    the    best 
standards  of  administration  and  tends  to  develop 
the  content  of  the  offering  in  the  direction  of  activ- 
ities that  are  educative. 

2.  It  requires  the  selection  of  the  best  trained 
men  and  women  for  the  position  of  director  and 
instructors  and  automatically  tends  to  eliminate  the 
"physical  culture'7  faddist,  the  professional  trainer 
type,  and  the  inadequately  trained  graduate. 

3.  It  aids  in  administering  the  department  with 
reference  to  the  student  body,  faculty,  and  general 
public. 

4.  It  gives  the  department  a  standing  in  the 
opinion  of  the  students  and  hence  favors  the  efforts 
of  the  director  to  broaden  the  program. 

The  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary 
Education  appointed  by  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation recommends  (10)  positive  school  credit  for  hygiene 
and  physical  education.  Its  report  says: 

The  courses  in  hygiene  should  receive  credit  on  the  same  basis  as 
other  classroom  subjects.  The  physical  practice  in  gymnastics,  ath- 
letics, games,  and  swimming  should  receive  positive  credit  on  the  same 
basis  as  laboratory  courses.  The  hygiene  instructions  should  be  graded 
on  the  basis  of  classroom  recitations  and  examinations.  The  physical 
practice  should  be  marked  on  the  basis  of  the  quality  of  the  work 
and  on  the  effort  of  the  pupil  in  daily  practice.  Tests  of  minimum 
physical  proficiency  should  be  given  at  regular  intervals. 

These  values  have  been  recognized  by  an  increasing 
number  of  schools  and  colleges  and  to-day  the  status  of 
physical  education  in  colleges  is  higher  than  ever  before. 

A  survey  of  a  hundred  leading  colleges  and  universities 
shows  that  positive  credit  is  given  in  56.9  per  cent; 


244  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

withheld  in  34.2  per  cent;    negative  credit  is  given  in 
2.8  per  cent.    No  reply  from  6.1  per  cent. 

Attendance. — Attendance  at  regularly  organized  classes 
of  physical  education  is  either  voluntary  or  required.  The 
former,  while  quite  general  a  few  years  ago  is  not  a  popular 
method  of  administration  to-day.  The  requirement  of 
attendance  has  become  the  usual  rule  and  is  considered 
more  satisfactory  because  of: 

1.  The  need  for  all  students  to  participate  in  a 
training  that  while  educational  in  a  very  real  sense  is 
also  a  healthful  procedure.   The  health  reason  appeals 
to  most  governing  boards  in  deciding  the  question. 

2.  The  students  who  need  the  activities  of  physical 
education  the  most  are  the  ones  who  would  not  attend 
under  the  voluntary  plan. 

A  questionnaire  sent  to  a  hundred  leading  colleges  and 
universities  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States  shows  for 
1920  that  physical  education  was  prescribed  in  95.7  per 
cent  of  the  70  institutions  answering  the  questionnaire. 
In  this  95.7  per  cent,  the  following  obtains: 

All  students 21.4% 

Freshmen 10.0% 

Freshmen  and  sophomores 32.8% 

Four  classes 2.8% 

First  three  classes 7.0% 

Other  combinations  or  provisions,  such  as  Liberal  Arts, 

Engineering,  etc 5.6% 

No  answer 16.1% 

The  evidence  from  the  selective  draft,  the  extent  and 
character  of  physical  weaknesses  in  children  in  the 
elementary  schools,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  physical 
education  should  be  required  daily  in  all  schools  and 
colleges  of  the  nation.  The  state  laws  for  physical 
education  are  a  step  in  the  right  direction  and  the  recent 
advances  in  requirement  of  attendance  among  colleges 


ATTENDANCE  245 

is  noteworthy.  Barnard  College  now  requires  physical 
education  all  four  years  of  the  college  course. 

Absence  and  tardiness. — Rules  on  absences  will  vary 
in  different  institutions.  Whatever  the  rule,  it  should  be 
applied  in  the  physical  education  classes  with  equal  force 
unless  there  are  special  considerations.  Certainly  there 
are  none  that  warrant  general  usage. 

Make  up  of  absences  should  be  carefully  controlled. 
A  certain  number  of  make-ups  may  be  permitted,  but 
opportunity  to  do  in  the  last  two  weeks  of  the  term  work 
that  should  have  been  done  throughout  the  school  session 
is  to  be  condemned. 

Tardiness  at  physical  education  classes  is  to  be  dealt 
with  according  to  the  local  rules  prevailing.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  teachers  help  students  to  keep  appointments 
on  time.  One  important  appointment  to  keep  on  tune 
should  be  the  hour  on  the  athletic  field,  in  the  pool,  or  in 
the  gymnasium. 

Monthly  absences. — It  is  necessary  to  provide  a  plan 
to  care  for  the  monthly  excuses  necessary  in  girls7  and 
young  women's  classes.  Miss  McKinstry*  gives  a  good 
opinion  on  this  point: 

The  giving  of  necessary  temporary  excuses  for  menstruation,  etc., 
can  be  most  satisfactorily  handled  in  the  larger  schools  where  some 
form  is  needed,  by  means  of  excuse  blanks  filled  out  before  class  either 
by  the  girls  themselves  or  by  an  instructor.  The  prevailing  custom 
now  seems  to  be  to  allow  such  excused  girls  to  stay  in  their  study  room 
instead  of  requiring  their  attendance  as  spectators  in  the  gymnasium. 

The  method  used  by  Miss  Florence  Stuart  for  the  high 
school  girls  of  the  Horace  Mann  School  is  admirable  in 
every  respect.  During  the  menstrual  period  the  student 
is  placed  on  her  honor  not  to  participate  in  her  class  work 
in  physical  education  for  the  entire  period.  This  includes 

*  McKinstry,  H.   M.     "Administration  of  Physical  Education  for  Girls  and  Young 
Women."     American  Physical  Education  Review.     June,  1911,  pp.  364-379. 


246  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

her  athletic  work  and  membership  in  athletic  teams.  A 
blank  slip,  dated,  is  placed  on  a  desk  in  the  high  school 
office  each  morning.  Students  requiring  an  excuse  for 
that  day  sign  their  names  there.  Later  this  memorandum 
is  entered  opposite  the  student's  name  in  the  instructor's 
roll  book.  By  this  means  a  very  careful  menstrual  record 
of  every  girl  in  the  high  school  is  kept  and  any  irregularities 
requiring  medical  attention  discovered.  Record  of  excuses 
shows  any  attempt  to  take  advantage  of  the  method.  The 
use  of  more  excuses  than  necessary  results  in  reference  of 
the  case  to  the  school  physician,  or  parent.  Instances  of 
this  are  very  rare.  The  students  accept  the  method  in  a 
fine  spirit.  (See  references  6,  7,  8.) 

Roll  taking. — It  is  important  that  the  rolls  in  physical 
education  classes  be  taken  carefully  and  quickly.  On  the 
one  hand  because  of  the  requirement  of  the  subject  there 
must  be  no  laxness  and  on  the  other  because  of  the  time 
required  for  undressing,  showers,  and  dressing,  no  time 
'must  be  lost  in  an  administrative  phase  of  the  work. 
There  are  different  methods  of  meeting  different  situa- 
tions. Some  are  good,  others  are  unsatisfactory.  It 
would  seem  worth  while  to  state  and  evaluate  them. 

1.  Calling  the  roll  of  names.    This  method  is  not 
to  be  used  except  in  very  small  classes.    It  is  a  time 
waster.   Although  it  has  the  advantage  of  acquainting 
the  instructor  with  the  names,  it  is  of  little  value  in 
this  connection,  unless  the  association  of  the  name 
and  face  is  made. 

2.  Recording  absent  numbers.     A  plan  that  has 
the  advantage  of  speed  consists  in  giving  each  member 
of  the  class  a  number,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
hour  having  the  class  respond  to  their  numbers  in 
consecutive  order.    .If   a  member   is   absent,   the 
instructor  calls  that  number  and  records  the  absence 
by  noting  on  a  pad  the  number  missing.    This  plan 


ROLL  TAKING  247 

is  rapid  and  efficient.     It  tends  to  the  mechanical 
in  that  the  individuals  are  known  as  numbers. 

3.  Recording  open  spaces.     Some  administrators 
follow  the  plan  of  having  special  marks  on  the  floor 
and  requiring  the  individual  members  of  the  class  to 
report  on  that  mark.    The  marks  are  numbered  and 
all  open  spaces  are  marked  absent.     This  plan  is 
rapid  but  may  limit  the  instructor  greatly  in  that  it 
requires  assembly  always  in  the  same  place.     It 
represents  a  rigid  method  that  is  followed  when 
the  work  is  always  indoor  and  of  the  formal  rigid 
type. 

4.  Alphabetical  plan.     Miss  Helen  Frost  proposes 
from  her  successful  experience  the  following  plan: 
The  class  lines  up  alphabetically.     The  instructor 
takes  the  roll  by  walking  down  the  line  noting  the 
absences.    In  only  a  few  days  the  names  and  faces 
are  associated.    After  the  roll  the  class  reassembles 
according  to  height. 

5.  Recording  by  squads.     The  most  satisfactory 
plan  is  to  record  by  squads.    It  is  rapid.    It  requires 
squad  leaders  and  aims  at  securing  development  of 
desirable  values  in  the  training  of  the  class.    If  the 
method  were  slow  and  inefficient  it  would  not  be 
acceptable  because  at  this  time  in  the  lesson  the  need 
is  for  speed  and  accuracy.    That  it  contributes  to 
development  of  leadership  at  the  same  time  that  it 
produces  quick  results  in  roll  taking  makes  it  a  very 
desirable  method.    It  is  necessary  to  have  capable 
substitutes.    Girls'  classes  should  have  at  least  two 
substitutes  for  each  squad  leader. 

6.  Roll  on  athletic  work.     The  roll   for   athletic 
squads  may  be  taken  by  squad  leaders,  or  by  the 
instructor  before  the  class  leaves  the  locker  room. 
The  importance  of  using  the  administrative  machinery 


248  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

for  the  development  of  wholesome  attitudes  and  a 
sense  of  responsibility  cannot  be  overemphasized. 
The  students  should  cooperate  to  assist  in  carrying 
out  the  program  in  physical  education.  The  training 
that  will  come,  under  supervision  of  course,  in  plan- 
ning interclass  tournaments,  varsity  schedules,  trans- 
portation routes,  entertainment  of  guests,  can  be 
supplemented  by  liberal  opportunity  to  exercise 
initiative  and  leadership.  One  instructor  of  physical 
education  in  a  large  girls'  high  school  writes  me  as 
follows:  "In  most  instances  the  managers  are  pre- 
pared in  case  of  illness  of  instructor  or  other  emer- 
gency to  take  command  and  to  coach  the  squads, 
obtaining  the  correct  attendance  list  and  maintaining 
discipline."  In  a  very  real  sense  the  development  of 
real  abilities  as  indicated  in  the  above  quotation,  is 
worth  a  great  deal  more  even  if  the  attendance 
were  incorrect,  than  a  correct  roll  under  an  inelastic, 
static,  formal  system. 

Grading. — If  the  work  is  voluntary  and  without  credit 
very  little  attention  is  paid  to  grading.  Little  attention 
should  be  given  to  it  in  comparison  with  the  effort  to  be 
made  in  other  directions. 

With  credit  and  required  attendance  provided  for,  it 
is  important  to  establish  a  stimulating,  fair,  and  functional 
type  of  grading.  There  is  at  present  no  uniformity  in 
method  or  in  guiding  principles  on  this  point.  At  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  "marks  are  based  on  excellence 
of  work,  improvement  in  posture  and  attendance;"*  at 
Wellesley,  "on  improved  carriage,  self-control,  and  better 
habits  of  life."*  Some  schools  attempt  to  grade  effort, 
others  grade  only  performance  and  measure  this  by  term 
or  year  examinations  which  seek  to  determine  skill, 
strength,  endurance,  ability  to  play  games  or  to  dance. 

*  McKinstry,  H.  M.    Loc.  Cit. 


GRADING  249 

Miss  Jessie  Whitham  of  Central  High  School,  Detroit,  has 
worked  out  interesting  plans  for  grading. 

It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  see  what  is  the 
recommendation  on  grading  in  the  general  educational 
field.  Monroe,  De  Voss,  and  Kelly  in  a  recent  book  (11) 
show  the'  inaccuracy  of  school  marks  by  the  usual  grading 
system  and  present  the  modern  methods  and  scales  in 
use  in  arithmetic,  reading,  spelling,  handwriting,  and 
language.  The  grading  of  pupils  in  elementary  and  high 
school  subjects  is  to-day  becoming  a  scientific  process. 
Nothing  in  this  direction  is  being  attempted  in  physical 
education  unless  the  efficiency  tests  are  to  be  so  considered. 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  important  to  try  to  suggest 
the  need  in  this  field  and  to  attempt  to  point  out  the 
direction  that  work  along  this  line  in  physical  education 
must  take. 

So  long  as  health  was  the  only  end  of  the  physical 
education  program  it  was  unnecessary  to  measure  motor 
skill,  or  the  response  to  situations  involving  feeling  and 
will.  But  to-day  with  modern  physical  education  awaken- 
ing to  its  opportunity  and  responsibility  in  this  respect, 
there  is  great  need  for  a  statement,  scientific  and  accurate, 
of  the  standard  performance  in  age  (physiological)  groups 
with  reference  to  certain  fundamental  motor  acts  and 
types  of  behavior  that  are  accepted  to-day  as  moral  and 
social.  Only  with  the  setting  up  of  standards  will  the 
work  take  on  the  educative  character  that  lies  within  its 
range.  Without  standards,  physical  education  will  con- 
tinue to  be  judged  in  terms  of  dumb-bell  drills  and 
perspiration. 

The  standards  set  up  will  probably  seek  to  determine 
the  following: 

1.  What  motor  skill  in  the  racial  and  natural 
activities  of  life  is  common  to  untrained  children  in 
different  age  (physiological)  groups? 


250  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

2.  ^What  motor  skill  in  the  racial  and  natural 
activities  of   life  is  found   in   trained   children   in 
different  age  (physiological)  groups? 

Classify  with  reference  to  the  particular  training 
experienced. 

3.  What  shall  be  the  standard  motor  performance 
in  certain  selected  activities? 

4.  What  knowledge  of  the  skill  should  accompany 
the  skill  in  any  particular  and  vital  motor  activity? 

5.  What  response  is  to  be  expected  of  children  in 
different   age    (physiological)    groups   to   situations 
involving  moral  and  social  values? 

These  questions  indicate  some  of  the  vital  information 
that  is  needed  to  make  the  administration  of  physical 
education  successful  in  the  sense  that  it  provides  training 
that  is  educating  for  life.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
various  physical  efficiency  tests  may  work  toward  achiev- 
ing a  rating  that  will  mean  something  definite  in  a  mark- 
ing scale  for  physical  education. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  McKiNSTRY,  HELEN  M.    "Administration  of  Physical  Educa- 

tion of  Girls  and  Young  Women."   American  Physical  Educa- 
tion Review,  June,  1911,  pp.  364-379. 
A  good  article  on  administrative  problems. 

2.  LAWRENCE  and  ADAMS.     "The  Organized  Care  of  Cardiac 

Children."    Hospital  Social  Service  Quarterly,  1920,  Vol.  II, 
p.  151. 

Description  of  an  interesting  cardiac  clinic  in  which  the  children 
were  treated  in  part  by  graduated  games  and  exercises. 

3.  MCKENZIE,  R.  TAIT.     Exercise  in  Education  and  Medicine, 

W.  B.  Saunders  Company,  Philadelphia,  1917,  Chap.  XIII. 
An  excellent  book,  complete  and  authoritative. 

4.  LEWIS,  THOMAS.     Clinical  Disorders  of  the  Heart,  PAUL  B. 

HOEBER,  N.  Y. 
A  simple  and  clear  statement  by  an  eminent  clinician. 

5.  MOSHER,  E.    Health  and  the  Woman  Movement,  The  Woman's 

Press,  600  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York,  1918,  pp.  20-21. 
A  very  valuable  book.    Not  in  harmony  in  all  statements  with 
the  experience  of  most  gynecologists. 


GRADING  251 


6.    BOLTON,  FLORENCE.   Exercises  for  Women,  Funk  and  Wagnalls, 
New  York,  1914,  p.  63. 


Gives  exercises  for  painful  menstruation. 

7.  Fox,  FORTESCUE  R.    Physical  Remedies,  Win.  Wood  &  Co., 

New  York,  1914,  Chap.  IX. 
A  good  treatment  of  the  use  of  physical  therapeutics. 

8.  HOLLINGSWORTH,  LiTA.    "Experimental  Study  of  the  Mental 

and   Motor    Abilities   of   Women   during   Menstruation." 
Teachers  College  Record,  New  York,  1914. 
A  scientific  study  of  this  question. 

9.  Bibliography  on  Military  Drill.  Teachers  College  Record. 

A  very  useful  compilation  of  the  articles  pro  and  contra  military 
drill  in  the  schools.  This  battle  is  fought  before  and  after 
every  war. 

10.  Commission    on    Reorganization    of    Secondary    Education. 

Physical  Education  in  Secondary  Schools.    Publication  of  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  (Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin, 
1917,  No.  50,  p.  18).. 
An  important  report. 

11.  MONROE,  DE  Voss,  and  KELLY.    Educational  Tests  and  Meas- 

urements, Riverside  Testbooks  in  Education.     Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1917. 

Simple  and  clear  treatment  of  educational  tests  and  measure- 
ments. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  AND  THE 
EFFICIENCY  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  PROCEDURE 

A  statement  of  the  problem. — Simple  and  definite 
scales*  have  been  worked  out  for  the  estimation  of  hand- 
writing and  composition.  There  is  no  satisfactory 
measuring  scale  for  determining  the  health  condition  of 
the  child.  Even  experts  in  child  hygiene  disagree  and  the 
lack  of  uniformity  in  judgments  of  health  by  physicians 
is  common  knowledge.  Formerly  in  physical  education 
great  pains  were  taken  to  secure  anthropometric  data  in 
the  examination  of  students  and  while  those  who  led  in 
the  movement  knew  that  such  data  had  only  anthropo- 
logical significance,  the  general  impression  among  students 
was  that  the  examination  gave  a  health  status.  The  boy 
who  could  chin  the  greatest  number  of  times  or  who  held 
the  school  record  in  lung  Capacity  was  considered  to  be 
in  the  best  physical  condition. 

This  tendency  has  changed.  /The  emphasis  to-day  is 
upon  the  determination  of  abnormal  organic  or  functional 
conditions.  To  this  end  there  have  been  suggested  certain 
tests  that  are  valuable  and  that  indicate  the  direction  of 
the  inquiry  to  be  made.  To-day  also  there  is  considerable 
interest  in  physical  efficiency  tests.  The  effort  in  this 
respect  is  to  learn  what  the  motor  mechanism  can  do, 
not  in  lifting  weights,  but  in  activities  requiring  co- 
ordination, skill,  endurance,  and  strength  combined  in 

*  Thorndike,  E.  L.  " Teachers  Estimate  of  the  Quality  of  Specimen  of  Handwriting." 
Teachers  College  Record.  November,  1914. 

Hillegas,  Milo  B.  "A  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Composition  by 
Young  People."  Teachers  College  Record.  September,  1912. 

252 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  253 

varying  degrees.     We  shall  discuss  the  tests  for  health 
first  and  later  the  tests  for  physical  efficiency. 

ESTIMATION  OF  HEALTH 

The  day  for  anthropometry  in  physical  education  is 
past.  Less  and  less  attention  will  be  devoted  to  it  in  the 
future.  The  emphasis  will  be  upon  dynamic  and  functional 
tests  that  indicate  health,  vital  power,  physical  efficiency. 

It  is  impossible  to  present  a  scheme  for  health  examina- 
tion that  will  meet  all  conditions  or  satisfy  all  examiners. 
The  attempt  will  be  made  to  indicate  what  seems  to  be 
the  more  important  items  in  the  health  examination  with 
a  brief  description  of  method. 

Nutrition. — The  health  commissioner  of  New  York 
City  states  in  the  public  press  in  November,  1919,  that 
over  30  per  cent  of  the  school  children  of  New  York 
show  malnutrition.  Malnutrition  as  a  condition  of  under 
nourishment  and  low  vitality  is  widespread  among  all 
children  and  compromises  the  health  and  development  of 
the  individual  as  a  child  and  also  as  an  adult.  Its  ravages 
are  seen  even  late  in  life.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to 
be  able  to  measure  nutrition  and  to  classify  and  care  for 
malnourished  children. 

The  test  that  is  most  satisfactory  is  the  Dunfermline 
Scale  (1).  It  was  adopted  for  use  in  New  York  City, 
December  1,  1915,  by  the  Bureau  of  Child  Hygiene.  The 
basis  of  the  scale  as  devised  by  Dr.  Alister  McKenzie, 
consists  of  four  groups  in  which  the  children  are  dis- 
tinguished: 

1.  "Excellent"  means  the  nutrition  of  a  healthy  child  of  good 
social  standing. 

2.  "Good"  means  the  nutrition  that  just  falls  short  of  this 
standard. 

3.  "Requiring  supervision"  are  children  on  the  borderland  of 
serious  impairment. 

4.  "  Requiring  medical  treatment ' '  are  children  whose  nutrition 
is  seriously  impaired. 


254  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  lour  groups  above  are  valuable  in  the  hands  of  ex- 
aminers who  have  an  appreciation  of  good  nutrition.  The 
directions  of  Dr.  McKenzie  (1)  and  Sir  George  Newman  (2) 
in  this  connection  are  important.  McKenzie  says: 

The  general  appearance  of  the  child,  the  condition  of  the  skin  and 
subcutaneous  tissues,  the  muscular  tone  and  development,  the  state  of 
the  mucous  membranes,  the  vigor  or  listlessness  that  may  appear  in 
the  child's  facial  expression,  carriage,  movements,  voice,  interest, 
attention — all  contribute  to  our  decision. 

According  to  Newman: 

Sound  nutrition  is  a  general  physiological  condition  which  connotes 
a  healthy  body  in  all  respects  and  the  good  tone  and  health  of  its  various 
constituent  parts,  its  brain  and  nervous  system,  its  muscular,  digestive, 
circulatory,  and  lymphatic  systems.  All  this  means  that  we  must  take 
a  wide  and  comprehensive  view  of  nutrition,  which  is  a  state  revealing 
itself  in  a  variety  of  signs  and  symptoms.  Thus  in  endeavoring  to 
estimate  a  child's  nutrition  or  its  opposite  (viz.,  malnutrition),  we  must 
think  not  only  of  bulk  and  weight  of  body  but  of  ratio  of  stature  to 
weight;  of  the  general  balance  and  "substance"-  of  the  body  and  of  its 
carriage  and  bearing;  of  the  firmness  of  the  tissues;  of  the  presence  of 
subcutaneous  fat;  of  the  condition  and  process  of  the  development  of 
the  muscular  system;  of  the  condition  of  the  skin  and  the  redness  of 
the  mucous  membranes;  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  as 
expressed  in  listlessness  or  alertness,  in  apathy  or  keenness;  of  the 
condition  of  the  various  systems  of  the  body,  and,  speaking  generally, 
of  the  relative  balance  and  coordination  of  the  functions  of  digestion, 
absorption,  and  assimilation  of  food  as  well  as  of  the  excretion  of  waste 
products.  It  is  obvious  that  these  are  data  which  are  likely  to  lead  to 
a  much  more  reliable  opinion  than  the  consideration  of  any  one  factor 
or  ratio,  however  expeditiously  obtained  or  convenient  in  form  or 
practise,  and  these  data  will  demand  a  wider  as  well  as  a  more  careful 
and  accurate  observation  of  the  whole  physique  of  the  child.  Nor  can 
an  ultimate  opinion  always  be  formed  at  one  inspection  at  any  given 
moment.  For  nutrition,  like  its  reverse,  malnutrition,  is  a  process  and 
not  an  event.  In  regard  to  diagnosis,  therefore,  the  school  medical 
officer  has  as  yet  neither  an  absolute  standard  of  nutrition  nor  a  single 
criterion  to  guide  him.  He  must  form  a  considered  and  careful  opinion 
on  all  the  facts  before  him. 

Manny*  proposes  the  following  classification  for  index 
of  nutrition  and  growth: 

*  Manny,  Frank  A.  "Indexes  of  Nutrition  and  Growth."  Modern  Hospital.  November, 
1916,  p.  125. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  255 

1.  Excellent  condition  (a  state  of  health  that  would  be  ac- 
counted "excellent"  in  favorable  social  conditions). 

2.  Good  condition. 

3.  Defective,  but  can  be  cared  for  adequately  under  present 
home  and  school  conditions. 

4.  Defective  and  requiring  some  degree  of  segregation  for 
observation  and  control  purposes,  such  as  could  be  accomplished 
in  a  well  organized  open  air  or  other  special  classroom. 

5.  Defective  and  requiring  such  complete  control  as  can  best 
be  given  in  an  institution  especially  equipped  for  that  purpose. 

Dr.  M.  C.  Schuyten,  of  Brussels,  gives  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Fourth  International  Congress  on  School 
Hygiene  (3)  Oppenheimer's  scale  for  measuring  general 
physiological  condition  with  emphasis  on  nutrition.  He 
used  it  to  determine  the  vital  efficiency  of  children.  It 
would  be  fitting  to  ask,  "What  is  meant  by  vital  effi- 
ciency?" The  test  is  conducted  by  measuring  the  circum- 
ference of  the  upper  arm  (centimeters),  multiplying  by 
a  hundred  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  chest  girth  at 
the  end  of  the  expiration  following  an  average  inspiration. 
Expressed  graphically  it  would  be 

Girth  upper  arm  X  100  . 

^rr—r — ,     ^  . : — -: —  =  Coefficient  of  vital 

Girth  chest  in  expiration  efficiency. 

The  standards  set  are  excellent,  29  and  above;  good, 
26  to  28;  poor,  less  than  26. 

Charts  for  children.  The  malnutrition  problem  is  a 
serious  one  in  children.  It  has  been  said  that  childhood 
suffers  from  lack  of  food  of  sufficient  amount  and  proper 
quality,  while  adults  suffer  from  too  much  food. 

The  effort  to  arrive  at  a  simple,  easy,  and  effective 
method  of  determination  of  malnutrition  has  resulted  in 
one  direction  in  the  charts  on  pages  256  and  257,  prepared 
by  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood.  It  has  been  found  satisfactory 
to  classify  as  malnourished  any  child  ten  pounds  or  more 
underweight,  and  as  overnourished,  any  child  ten  pounds 
or  more  overweight  according  to  the  tables.  The  use  of 


256 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


HEIGHT1  AND   WEIGHT   TABLES 
BOYS 


Height 
Inches 

5 

Yrs. 

6 

Yrs. 

Yrs. 

8 
Yrs. 

9 

Yrs. 

10 

Yrs. 

11 

Yrs. 

12 

Yrs. 

13 

Yrs. 

14 
Yrs. 

15 
Yrs. 

16 
Yrs. 

17 

Yrs. 

18 
Yrs. 

39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

35 
37 
39 
41 
43 
45 
47 
48 

36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 
47 
49 
51 
53 
55 

37 
39 
41 
43 
45 
46 
48 
50 
52 
54 
56 
58 

44 
46 
47 
48 
50 
52 
55 
57 
59 

49 
51 
53 
55 
58 
60 

54 
56 
58 
60 

57 
59 
61 

62 

51 

60 

61 

6? 

63 

64 

65 

52 

62 

63 

64 

65 

67 

68 

53 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

54 
55 

69 

70 
73 

71 
74 

72 
75 

73 

76 

74 
77 

78 

56 
57 

.... 

77 

78 
81 

79 

82 

80 
83 

81 
84 

82 
85 

86 

58 
59 

84 
87 

85 
88 

86 
89 

87 
90 

88 
92 

90 
94 

91 
96 

97 

60 

91 

92 

93 

94 

97 

99 

101 

102 

61 

95 

97 

99 

102 

104 

106 

108 

110 

62 

100 

102 

104 

106 

109 

111 

113 

116 

63 

64 

105 

107 
113 

109 
115 

111 

117 

114 
118 

115 
119 

117 
120 

119 
122 

65 
66 

120 
125 

122 
126 

123 
127 

124 
128 

125 
129 

126 
130 

67 

130 

131 

132 

133 

134 

135 

68 

134 

135 

136 

137 

138 

139 

69 

138 

139 

140 

141 

142 

143 

70 

142 

144 

145 

146 

147 

71 

147 

149 

150 

151 

152 

72 

152 

154 

155 

156 

157 

MEN 


Height 

19 
Yrs. 

20 

Yrs. 

21-22 

Yrs. 

23-24 

Yrs. 

25-29 
Yrs. 

30-34 
Yrs. 

35-39 
Yrs. 

40-44 

Yrs. 

45-49 
Yrs. 

50-54 
Yrs. 

55-59 
Yrs. 

5  ft.  .  . 

107 
112 
117 
121 
124 
128 
132 
136 
140 
144 
148 
153 
158 
163 
168 
173 
178 
183 

110 
115 
120 
124 
127 
130 
133 
137 
141 
145 
149 
154 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 

114 
118 
122 
126 
129 
132 
136 
140 
143 
147 
151 
156 
162 
167 
173 
178 
183 
188 

118 
121 
124 
128 
131 
134 
138 
142 
146 
150 
154 
159 
165 
170 
176 
181 
186 
191 

122 
124 
126 
129 
133 
137 
141 
145 
149 
153 
157 
162 
167 
173 
179 
184 
189 
194 

126 
128 
130 
133 
136 
140 
144 
148 
152 
156 
161 
166 
172 
178 
184 
190 
196 
201 

128 
130 
132 
135 
138 
142 
146 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
176 
182 
189 
195 
201 
207 

131 
133 
135 
138 
141 
145 
149 
153 
158 
163 
168 
174 
180 
186 
193 
200 
206 
212 

133 
135 
137 
140 
143 
147 
151 
155 
160 
165 
170 
176 
182 
188 
195 
202 
209 
215 

134 
136 
138 
141 
144 
148 
152 
156 
161 
166 
171 
177 
183 
190 
197 
204 
211 
217 

135 
137 
139 
142 
145 
149 
153 
158 
163 
168 
173 
178 
184 
191 
198 
205 
212 
219 

5  ft.  1  in  ... 

5ft.  2  in  

5ft.  3  in  
5ft.  4  in  
5ft.  5  in  
5ft.  6  in  
5ft.  7  in  
5  ft.  8  in 

5ft.  9  in  
5  ft.  10  in  
5ft.  11  in  
6  ft  
6  ft.  1  in  ... 

6  H.  2  in  

6  ft.  3  in  

6  ft  4  in 

6ft.  Sin  

Copyr't,  1921,  E.  &  T.  Fairbanks  &  Co. 

All  tables  prepared  by  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood  and  included  through  courtesy  of  the 
Child  Health  Organization. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS 


257 


HEIGHT  AND   WEIGHT  TABLES 
GIRLS 


Height 
Inches 

5 

Yrs. 

6 

Yrs. 

7 
Yrs. 

8 
Yrs. 

9 

Yrs. 

10 

Yrs. 

11 

Yrs. 

12 
Yrs. 

13 
Yrs. 

14 
Yrs. 

15 
Yrs. 

16 
Yrs. 

17 
Yrs. 

18 
Yrs. 

39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 

34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 
48 

35 
37 
39 
41 
42 
45 
47 
48 
49 
51 
53 

36 
38 
40 
42 
43 
45 
47 
49 
50 
52 
54 
56 
59 
62 

43 
44 
46 
48 
50 
51 
53 
55 
57 
60 
63 
66 
68 

49 
51 
52 
54 
56 
58 
61 
64 
67 
69 

53 
55 
57 
59 
62 
65 
68 
70 

56 
58 
60 
63 
66 
68 
71 

61 
64 
67 
69 
72 

70 
73 

55 

7?, 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

56 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

57 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

58 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

59 

89 

90 

91 

93 

94 

95 

96 

98 

60 

94 

95 

97 

99 

100 

102 

104 

106 

61 

99 

101 

102 

104 

106 

108 

109 

111 

62 
63 

104 

109 

106 
111 

107 
112 

109 
113 

111 
115 

113 
117 

114 
118 

115 
119 

64 

115 

117 

118 

119 

120 

121 

122 

65 

117 

119 

120 

122 

123 

124 

125 

66 

119 

121 

122 

124 

126 

127 

128 

67 

124 

126 

127 

128 

129 

130 

68 

126 

128 

130 

132 

133 

134 

69 
70 

129 

131 
134 

133 
136 

135 
138 

136 
139 

137 
140 

71 

138 

140 

142 

143 

144 

72 



145 

147 

148 

149 

WOMEN 


Height 

19 
Yrs. 

20 

Yrs. 

21-22 
Yrs. 

23-24 
Yrs. 

25-29 
Yrs. 

30-34 
Yrs. 

35-39 
Yrs. 

40-44 
Yrs. 

45-49 
Yrs. 

50-54 

Yrs. 

Yrs. 

4  ft.  10  in.  .  . 
4  ft  11  in 

98 
103 
109 
113 
116 
120 
123 
126 
129 
131 
135 
138 
141 
145 
150 

102 
107 
112 
115 
118 
121 
124 
127 
130 
133 
137 
140 
143 
147 
152 

106 
109 
113 
116 
119 
122 
125 
128 
131 
135 
13£ 
142 
145 
149 
154 

110 
112 
115 
118 
120 
123 
126 
129 
133 
137 
141 
145 
148 
151 
156 

113 
115 
117 
119 
121 
124 
128 
131 
135 
139 
143 
147 
151 
154 
158 

116 
118 
120 
122 
124 
127 
131 
134 
138 
142 
146 
150 
154 
157 
161 

119 
121 
123 
125 
127 
130 
134 
138 
142 
146 
150 
154 
157 
160 
163 

123 
125 
127 
129 
132 
135 
138 
142 
146 
150 
154 
158 
161 
164 
167 

126 
128 
130 
132 
135 
138 
141 
145 
149 
153 
157 
161 
164 
168 
171 

129 
131 
133 
135 
138 
141 
144 
148 
152 
156 
161 
165 
169 
173 
176 

•'• 

5  ft  
5ft.  lin  
5  ft  2  in 

5ft.  3  in  

5  ft.  4  in  
5  ft.  5  in.  
5  ft.  6  in  

5  ft  7  in 

5ft.  Sip.  
5  ft.  9  in 

5  ft  10  in 

5ft.  11  in... 

6ft...  . 

Copyr't,  1921,  E.  &  T.  Fairbanks  &  Co. 

All  tables  prepared  by  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood  and  included  through  courtesy  of  the 
Child  Health  Organization. 


258  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

these  tables  does  not  mean  that  the  cause  of  the  condi- 
tion is  determined.  The  underweight  may  be  the  result 
of  tuberculosis.  Irrespective  of  cause,  the  child  is  mal- 
nourished if  its  weight  is  ten  pounds  or  more  below  what 
it  should  be  for  its  height  and  age. 

Weight  in  adult  life.  Insurance  mortality  statistics 
indicate  that  an  increase  in  weight  after  thirty  years  of 
age  is  undesirable  for  length  of  life.  The  charts  on  pages 
256  and  257  indicate  the  proper  weight  for  height  and  age. 

Eyes. — Normal  vision  is  so  important  because  of  the 
many  serious  reflex  conditions  arising  out  of  imperfect 
vision  that  every  care  should  be  used  to  diagnose  and 
correct  abnormalities  of  vision.  The  most  simple  and 
most  generally  used  test  for  determining  vision  as  given 
by  Dr.  Wood*  is  as  follows : 

Conditions  for  Test. 

I.  Make  the  test  for  each  pupil  singly  and  in  a  room  apart  from 
the  schoolroom  if  possible. 

II.  For  children  too  young  to  read,  use  the  chart  with  pictures 
of  familiar  objects. 

Arrangement  of  Chart. 

III.  Hang  the  Snellen  test  chart  away  from  windows,  in  a  good 
light,  on  a  level  with  the  head. 

Test. 

IV.  Place  the  pupil  20  feet  from  the  chart.    Hold  a  card  over 
one  eye.  firmly  against  the  nose  without  pressing  on  the  covered 
eye.    Have  pupil  name  letters  from  the  top  (larger  letters)  down- 
ward, reading  from  left  to  right  with  one  eye  and  from  right  to 
left  with  the  other  to  avoid  reading  from  memory. 

Recording. 

V.  The  lines  on  the  chart  are  numbered.    At  a  distance  of 
20  feet  the  normal  eye  should  read  the  letters  on  the  20  foot  line. 

20  (distance  in  feet  of  chart  from  eye). 
)e  20  (number  over  line  of  smallest  letters  read). 

*Wood,  T.  D.    Health  and  Education.    Ninth  Year  Book.    Part  I.    National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  259 

If  the  smallest  letters  which  can  be  read  are  on  the  30  foot  line 

20 
vision  will  be  recorded  as   ^Q    If  the  smallest  letters  which  can  be 

20 
read  are  on  the  40  foot  line,  the  record  would  be  TQ    If  a  pupil 

cannot  see  the  largest  letters  numbered,  for  instance  100,  have  him 
approach  slowly  until  he  can  read  them.  If  10  feet  is  the  greatest 
distance  at  which  the  largest  letters  can  be  read,  record  would  be 

JQQ  A  mistake  of  two  letters  on  the  20  foot  line  and  of  one  on  the 
30  or  40  foot  line  may  be  allowed. 

Dr.  Woll  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  uses 
a  method  that  is  very  satisfactory,  easy  to  do,  and  more 
accurate  than  the  above.  It  detects  errors  not  discernible 
with  the  test  chart.  The  technique  (4)  of  this  objective 
method  is  worth  learning.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  state 
that  it  depends  upon  the  use  of  the  ophthalmoscope  and 
employs  a  technique  that  is  not  difficult. 

The  use  of  the  test  type  without  lenses  fails  to  determine 
that  abnormality  of  vision  known  as  hyperopia.  In  this 
connection,  Whipple*  says — "many  of  the  simple  distance 
tests  that  have  been  applied  (Wholesale  upon  school 
children  utterly  fail  to  diagnose  it."  .The  test  .recom- 
mended by  the  American  Ophthalmological  Society  em- 
ploys Dennett's  type  and  two  test  lenses,  two  —  .75  D. 
and  two  +.75  D,  and  one  blank  disc.  This  test  is  easily 
made  and  may  with  the  astigmatic  test  be  considered 
adequate  for  purposes  of  detection  of  abnormality.  The 
test  is  adequately  described  by  Whipple.* 

Eye  conditions  need  observation  ,and  attention  (5). 
The  more  common  ones  will  be  presented  here. 

1.  Trachoma.  This  is  a  disease  of  the  eyelids 
characterized  by  inflammatory  thickening  of  the 
conjunctiva  with  the  presence  of  a  granular  formation 
and  an  eye  discharge.  The  disease  is  very  contagious. 

*  Whipple,  G.  M.     Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.     Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore, 
1910,  Test  14,  p.  131. 


260  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

It  is  progressive  and  unless  treated  leads  to  permanent 
impairment  of  the  eyelids  and  may  destroy  vision. 
The  cure  is  very  difficult  and  unless  thorough  and 
constant  care  is  taken,  it  is  hopeless  to  expect  a  cure. 

2.  Acute  epidemic  conjunctivitis.     This  acute  in- 
fection  of  the  eye  is  popularly  known  as  "pink 
eye."     It  is  more  often  seen  in  adults  and  occurs 
epidemically.    It  is  simple  to  treat  and  has  no  serious 
complications. 

3.  Simple  conjunctivitis.    This  is  evidenced  by  the 
redness  of  the  conjunctiva  with  watering  and  some 
discharge.     It  is  caused  by  dirt,  dust,  and   wind 
(automobile  riding),  and  not  by  an  infection.    The 
increase  in  lachrymation  is  an  effort  to  get  rid  of  the 
irritation. 

Ears. — Defective  hearing  is  not  as  easy  to  detect  as 
defective  vision.  Frequently  a  child  is  adjudged  stupid 
who  fails  to  understand  lessons  presented  when  the  cause 
for  the  failure  is  imperfect  hearing. 

The  causes  of  defective  hearing  may  be  congenital  or 
acquired.  Adenoids,  and  infectious  diseases,  such  as  scar- 
let fever,  measles,  smallpox,  etc.,  are  often  causes.  The 
test  to  be  used  is  the  voice  test  or  the  audiometer  test. 
The  former  is  in  more  general  use.  As  described  in 
General  Orders  66  and  used  by  the  War  Department, 
U.  S.  government,  it  is  conducted  as  follows: 

The  hearing  will  be  tested  by  the  whispered  voice  at  20  feet,  the 
examiner  using  his  residual  air  to  produce  the  whisper.  The  applicant 
should  stand  with  his  back  to  the  examiner  while  an  assistant  closes 
each  of  the  applicant's  ears  in  succession  by  pressing  his  finger  firmly 
on  the  tragus.  If  the  whisper  is  inaudible  to  the  applicant,  the  voice 
of  the  examiner  will  be  raised  to  a  forced  whisper,  to  ordinary  voice,  or 
to  loud  voice  as  may  be  necessary. 

Normal  hearing  should  detect  and  understand  the 
whispered  voice  at  twenty  feet. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  261 

Ear  defects,  other  than  defective  hearing,  are  impacted 
wax,  running  ear,  ruptured  drum,  and  swellings  in  the 
canal  due  to  furuncles  (boils)  or  other  infections. 

It  cannot  be  emphasized  too  often  that  one  should  be 
dissatisfied  with  the  mere  observing  and  recording  of 
defects  of  the  body,  and  that  one  should  seek  constantly 
to  devise  ways  and  means  of  treatment  and  cure. 
Medical  inspection  too  often  has  been  concerned  only 
with  inspection.  More  than  that  is  involved  the  moment 
a  defect  is  found. 

Mouth. — The  mouth  in  these  days  is  viewed  with 
suspicion  whenever  anything  is  wrong  with  the  function- 
ing of  the  body.  The  gateway  of  disease  is  not  always  the 
mouth  but  frequently  the  oral  cavity  is  the  ante  room 
to  a  host  of  bodily  aches  and  pains.  In  an  estimation  of 
an  individual's  health,  the  mouth  comes  in  for  careful 
inspection. 

1.  Teeth.  Some  hygienists  to-day  are  saying 
that  it  would  be  better  for  people  to  have  their  teeth 
extracted  and  replaced  by  plates  of  artificial  ones. 
This  probably  is  an  extreme  statement.  No  attempt 
will  be  made  here  to  state  the  diseases  and  disturbances 
arising  out  of  tooth  infections  but  only  to  indicate  the 
points  to  notice  in  the  examination.  Beck*  writes 
of  the  importance  of  chronic  focal  infections. 

a.  Hygiene  of  the  teeth.  Are  they  clean?  Do 
they  show  that  they  were  cared  for? 

6.  Disease  of  the  teeth.  Note  cavities.  What  is 
the  condition  of  the  gums?  Is  pyorrhea  alveolaris 
present? 

c.  Repair  of  the  teeth.  What  teeth  are  filled? 
Is  there  bridgework?  Are  there  crowns?  Are  there 
missing  teeth? 

*Beck,  Joseph  C.     "Chronic  Focal  Infection  of  the  Nose,  Throat,  Mouth,  and  Ear." 
Journal  American  Medical  Association.     November  7,  1914. 


262  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Conditions  found  on  examination  will  vary.  The 
really  bad  dental  conditions  among  school  children 
(6)  will  astonish  those  who  come  uninitiated  into  the 
field.  As  a  guide  in  advice  and  procedure,  the  best 
dental  authorities  agree  upon  the  following: 

(1)  The  teeth  should  be  clean. 

(2)  All  cavities  should  be  filled. 

(3)  All  roots  and  stumps  should  be  removed. 

(4)  Pyorrhea  should  be  treated. 

(5)  Crowns  and  bridge  work  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended.    Crowns  are  to  be  viewed  with  suspicion 
if  there  is  any  general  bodily  disturbance  not  traced 
definitely  to  other  causes. 

2.  Tonsils.    These  small  lymphatic  glands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  pharynx  are  frequently  the  cause  of 
impairment  of  health.    In  children  frequent  attacks 
of  tonsilitis  endanger  the  child's  health.    Removal  is 
advised  not  on  the  basis  of  size  unless  the  size  is 
obstructive  as  often  occurs  in  young  children,  but  on 
the  condition  of  the  tonsil.*    It  is  advisable  to  refer 
all  cases  to  an  experienced  throat  specialist. 

3.  Adenoids.     A  very  common  disturber  of  growth 
and  general  health  is  the  collection  of  lymphatic  tissue 
at  the  back  of  the  nose.     Adenoids  if  giving  signs 
should  be  removed.    Signs  of  adenoids  are: 

a.  Mouth    breathing    during    day    and    night; 
snoring  at  night 

b.  Nasal  catarrh 

c.  Depression  of  physical  and  mental  activity 
due  to  lack  of  air 

d.  Drowsiness,  sluggishness;    sleeps  a  great  deal 

e.  Swollen  bridge  of  the  nose  (late  effect) 

f.  Middle  ear  disturbance;  does  not  always  occur 

See   Williams,    Jesse    Feiring,    Personal   Hygiene  Applied,    W.  B.  Saundcrs  Company, 
Philadelphia,  1922. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  263 

g.    Narrowing  of  jaws,  arching  of  palate,  irregu- 
larity of  teeth 

h.    Frequent  sore  throat 

i.     Cervical  adenitis 

j.     Nervous  disorders 

k.    Malnutrition  (late  effect) 

I.     Defective  speech 

Heart  and  circulatory  system. — A  thorough  examina- 
tion of  the  heart  requires  a  physician  who  has  been  well 
trained.  Ready  recognition  of  abnormal  heart  sounds  and 
action  is  then  possible.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  have 
some  tests  of  heart  action  in  that  large  group  of  cases 
that  are  classed  normal  by  physicians  and  yet  that  show 
a  wide  variability  in  action  under  exercise.  The  effects 
of  athletics  on  the  heart  (7)  and  the  need  for  careful 
supervision  of  athletics  during  athletic  events  indicates 
the  value  of  a  ready  test  for  determining  fitness  for 
competition.  Because  of  this  need  there  have  arisen 
several  tests  of  heart  efficiency  and  circulatory  action 
that  are  worthy  of  presentation.  They  have  not  been 
studied  comparatively  to  any  extent  and  it  is  not  known 
if  all  are  satisfactory. 

1.  The  Foster  test.     The  simplest  is  the  Foster 
test  (8).    It  is  described  on  page  294. 

2.  The  Crampton  test.      Dr.  C.  Ward  Crampton 
has  devised  what  he  calls  the  Blood  Ptosis  Test. 
It  aims  to  measure  the  tone  of  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  body  and  hence  general  body  tone  and  hence 
general  circulatory  condition  and  physical  efficiency. 
It  has  not  been  sufficiently  tried  out  and  its  value 
is  still  sub  judice.     It  should  be  compared  with  other 
tests.    Dr.  Crampton  describes  (9)  the  technique  of 
the  test  as  follows: 

The  sphygmomanometer  is  adjusted  over  the  brachial  artery  and 
the  patient  is  placed  on  a  comfortable  couch  with  a  low  pillow. 


264  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  heart  rate  is  counted  by  quarter  minutes  and  a  gradually 
increasing  rate  is  usually  observed.  Counting  should  be  con- 
tinued until  two  successive  quarter  minutes  are  the  same;  this  is 
multiplied  by  four  and  recorded.  The  systolic  pressure  is  then 
taken  preferably  by  auscultation.  The  patient  stands,  the  heart 
rate  is  counted  as  before  until  it  reaches  the  ''standing  normal" 
when  it  is  recorded  and  the  blood  pressure  is  then  taken.  The  dif- 
erences  are  calculated  and  reference  is  made  to  the  scale: 

PERCENTAGE  SCALE 

VASOMOTOR  TONE 

Blood  Pressure 


TT 

.Heart  rate 

••  Increase 

increase    +10 

+8  +6  +4 

+2 

0 

-2 

-Uecrea 
-4  -6 

.DC 

-8 

-10 

Oto  4. 

....  100 

95 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

5  to  8. 

....  95 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

9  to  12. 

....  90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

13  to  16. 

....  85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

17  to  20. 

....  80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

21  to  24. 

....  75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

25  to  28. 

....  70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

29  to  32. 

....  65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

33  to  36  . 

....  60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

37  to  40. 

....  55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

41  to  44. 

....  50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Note. — In  case  of  increase  in  pressure  higher  than  +10  add 
5  per  cent  to  the  + 10  column  for  each  2  millimetres  in  excess  of  10. 

For  decrease  in  pressure  lower  than  — 10  subtract  5  per  cent 
from  the  — 10  column  for  each  2  millimetres  lost. 

This  scale  provides  a  convenient  and  intelligible  method  of 
recording  and  reporting  cases  and  permits  a  numerical  statement 
of  the  function  in  question.  Its  100  mark  indicates  a  perfectly 
efficient  working  of  the  vasomotor  system  under  test,  the  zero  is 
approximately  the  point  where  the  average  person  is  unable  to 
maintain  the  erect  posture. 

3.  The  Barringer  test.  The  Barringer  test  (10) 
is  a  test  of  the  response  of  the  circulatory  system  to 
a  definite  amount  of  work  and  is  interpreted  in  terms 
of  a  delayed  rise  in  blood  pressure.  It  is  a  very 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  265 

valuable  test  but  its  routine  use  is  not  possible  because 
of  the  amount  of  time  required  to  perform  the  test 
properly.  Its  essential  technique  is  as  follows: 

The  apparatus  consists  of  pairs  of  5,  10,  15,  and  20  pound 
dumb-bells,  and  a  steel  bar  about  40  inches  long  weighing  about 
25  pounds.  Definite  prescribed  movements  are  made  with  the 
dumb-bells  and  the  foot  pounds  of  work  done  is  estimated.  The 
pulse  rate  and  blood  pressure  is  taken  every  30  seconds  and  the 
work  increased  until  a  delayed  rise  in  the  blood  pressure  is  ob- 
served. The  normal  cardiac  capacity  varies  in  different  people 
and  a  scale  for  reading  the  results  is  not  available.  A  practical 
test  for  estimating  the  heart's  functional  capacity  has  been  pro- 
vided, however,  in  this  technique  by  Barringer. 

4.  The  Schneider  cardiovascular  rating.  Schneider 
in  an  effort  to  devise  an  "  easily  applied  reliable 
physical  efficiency  test "  to  measure  physical  efficiency 
and  to  detect  fatigue  studied  the  tests  by  Foster  and 
Crampton  and  the  standards  used  by  Meylan.  He 
arranged  a  test  that  considers  heart  rate  reclining, 
increase  on  standing,  standing  rate,  increase  after 
exercise,  return  rate  after  exercise,  and  systolic  blood 
pressure  standing  and  reclining.  The  following  table 
indicates  the  point  rating  for  the  different  deter- 
minations. 


Points  for  Grading  Cardiovascular  Changes 

B 

A  Pulse  rate  increase  on  standing 

Reclining  0-10     11-18    19-26    27-34    35-42 

pulse  rate  Beats    Beats    Beats    Beats    Beats 

Rate    Points  Points  Points  Points  Points  Points 

50-  60  3  33210 

61-  70  3  3210-1 

71-  80  2  320-1-2 

81-  90  1  21-1-2 

91-100  0  10-2-3-3 

101-110  -1  0        -1         -3        -3        -3 


266 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Standing 
pulse  rate 
Rate  Points 


Pulse  rate  increase  immediately  after 

exercise 

0-10     11-20    21-30    31-40    41-50 
Beats    Beats    Beats    Beats    Beats 

Points  Points   Points   Points  Points 


60-  70 

71-  80 

81-  90 

91-100 

101-110 

111-120 

121-130 


131-140    -1 

E 

Return  of  pulse  rate 
to  standing  normal 

after  exercise 
Seconds         Points 
0-60  3 

61-  90  2 

91-120  1 

After  120:  2-10  beats  above 

normal  0 

After  120:  11-30  beats  above 
normal  —1 


0 
0 

-1 
-2 
-3 
-3 
-3 
-3 


Systolic  pressure  standing  compared 

with  reclining 

Change  in  mm.  Points 

Rise  of  8  or  more  3 

Rise  of  2-7  2 

No  rise  1 

Fall  of  2-5  0 

Fall  of  6  or  more  - 1 


From  the  experience  at  Mitchell  Aviation  Field,  Schnei- 
der states  that  a  score  of  nine  or  less  is  characteristic 
of  physically  unfit  men.  The  procedure  in  making  the 
test  is  fully  described  in  the  original  article.* 

Lungs. — The  examination  of  the  lungs  is  a  delicate 
task  and  in  the  hands  of  the  unskilled  non-medical 
examiner  it  is  worthless.  Medical  examiners  are  laying 
great  stress  upon  the  early  detection  of  tuberculosis  (11) 
and  the  importance  therefore  of  yearly  examinations  is 
not  to  be  gainsaid.  The  examination  must  be  made  by 
a  well  trained  medical  officer. 

Feet. — Flat  feet  were  not  an  uncommon  cause  for  rejec- 
tion in  the  Selective  Service  Draft  for  the  National  Army. 

*  Schneider,  E.  C.     "A  Cardiovascular  Rating  as  a  Measure  of  Physical  Fatigue  and 
Efficiency."     Journal  American  Medical  Association.     May  29,  1920,  p.  1507. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  267 

The  early  recognition  of  weak  and  flat  feet  and  initiation 
of  pressure  and  corrective  measures  in  school  is  very  im- 
portant. Some  of  the  more  important  tests  to  make  are: 

1.  Functional  test.    The  subject  is  required  to  rise 
on  the  feet,  to  jump  into  the  air,  and  to  land  bending 
the  knees.    The  test  used  by  the  medical  department 
of  the  army  is  described  in  General  Orders  66  as  follows : 

The  strength  of  the  foot  should  be  tested  by  requiring  the 
applicant  to  walk  on  his  toes  (the  soles  of  the  feet  being  nearly 
vertical  with  the  floor)  and  to  hop  on  the  toes  of  each  foot.  He 
should  be  able  to  rise  on  the  tip  toes  strongly,  to  hop  well,  and  to 
alight  on  the  toes  after  springing  from  the  ground.  Pronounced 
cases  of  flat  foot,  attended  with  marked  eversion  of  the  foot  and 
marked  bulging  of  the  inner  border  due  to  inward  rotation  of  the 
astragalus,  are  disqualifying  regardless  of  the  presence  or  absence 
of  subjective  symptoms. 

What  is  important  to  determine  is  the  functional 
strength  of  the  foot  and  not  its  relative  flatness.  A 
high  arch  may  present  a  weak  foot. 

2.  Graphic  test.     For  the  reason  given  above  the 
use  of  wet  or  blackened  paper  to  represent  graphically 
the  arch  of  the  foot  is  of  less  value  than  the  above 
test.    It  consists  in  having  the  subject  stand  on  paper 
prepared  with  a  carbon  film. 

3.  Pressure  test.    A  more  valuable  test  than  the 
graphic  one  above  and  of  equal  value  with  the  func- 
tional test  and  to  be  used  with  it,  is  the  pressure  test 
as  described  to  me  by  Dr.  Albert  Freiberg,  of  Cin- 
cinnati.    It  consists  in  applying  pressure  with  the 
thumb  over  the  sustentaculum  tali.    In  early  cases 
showing   strain   on   the   arch,    tenderness   will   be 
elicited.    It  is  an  important  diagnostic  point. 

Spine. — Deviation  from  the  normal  in  the  spine  may 
be  slight  and  as  such  is  of  no  particular  importance.  If 
such  deviation  is  accompanied  by  pain,  weakness,  discom- 
fort, the  condition  needs  treatment.  Corrective  exercises 


268  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

for  all  spinal  curvature  of  a  postural  character  or  resulting 
from  disease  such  as  infantile  paralysis  are  indicated. 
Instruments  for  measuring  the  anterior  and  lateral  curves 
are  the  pantograph  (12),  the  Schulthess  instrument  (13) 
and  the  scoliosiometer  (12). 

The  eight  items  discussed  are  important  in  any  estima- 
tion of  the  health  of  pupils  and  students.  Less  or  more 
than  the  above  may  be  done  in  certain  places*  and  be 
satisfactory;  in  most  cases  the  above  presents  an  average 
and  satisfactory  list  for  examination  and  with  one  or  two 
exceptions  offers  a  type  of  examination  that  the  non- 
medical  officer  may  not  attempt. 

TEACHERS'  AND  PARENTS'  COOPERATION  IN 

HEALTH  SUPERVISION 

It  is  important  to  have  teachers  instructed  to  recognize 
defects  and  disturbances  in  children  and  every  help  that 
will  assist  them  to  refer  cases  should  be  used.  With  this 
valuable  measure  in  mind,  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood  proposes 
three  groups  of  signs  with  indications  which  make  com- 
paratively easy  the  recognition  of  disturbances.  These 
signs  are  also  of  significance  for  parents. 

FOR  PARENTS 


INDICATIONS  OF  HEALTH  DISORDERS 
IN  CHILDREN 

for  which  parents  should  keep  children  at  home 
and  notify  the  school 

Proposed  by 
THOMAS  D.  WOOD,  M.  D., 

Teachers  College 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Nausea 
Vomiting 

*  Transactions  of  Fourth  International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.     Vol.  IV,    pp. 
135-692. 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS  269 

Chill  or  convulsions  (fits) 

Dizziness,  faintness,  or  unusual  pallor 

Eruption  (rash)  of  any  kind 

Fever 

Running  nose 

Red  or  running  eyes 

Sore  or  inflamed  throat 

Acutely  swollen  glands  in  neck 

Cough 

Failure  to  eat  the  usual  breakfast 

Any  distinct  change  from  usual  appearance  and  conduct  of  child 

The  above  signs  should  be  used  also  by  teachers  as  a  basis  for  ex- 
cluding pupils  from  school  for  the  day,  or  until  signs  have  disappeared, 
or  until  the  school  doctor  has  authorized  the  return  of  the  pupil  to 
school. 

Children  may  be  taught  (without  disturbing  fear  or  attempt  to 
deceive)  to  notice  the  above  signs  in  themselves  or  their  companions 
and  thus  contribute  their  part  toward  protecting  the  school  from 
contagious  disease. 


FOR  TEACHERS 


SIGNS   OF  HEALTH  DISORDERS 
PHYSICAL  DEFECTS  IN   SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


The  following  signs  of  disorder  have  been  arranged  in  three  groups 
for  the  use  of  teachers  in  detecting  possible  health  and  physical  defects 
in  children  under  their  care. 

Group  I  contains  signs  of  disorder  which  call  for  immediate  attention. 

Group  II  names  signs  of  abnormality  pointing  to  more  chronic  dis- 
orders which  should  be  remedied  early. 

Group  III  contains  indications  of  disturbance  which  are  important 
in  connection  with  other  signs  of  physical  disorder. 


Sore  throat 
Earache 
Ear  discharge 
Running  nose 


GROUP  I. 
Signs 


Disorders  of  nose,  throat, 
and  ear 


270 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Sore  eyes  of  any  kind 

Styes 

Congested  eyes  (red  or  bloodshot) 

Dizziness 

Flushed  face 

Chill 

Headache 

Eruptions 

Nausea 

Vomiting 

Running  nose 

Congested  eyes 

Cough 

Fits 
Fainting 

Enlarged  glands  in  neck 
Puffiness  of  face  and  eyes 
Shortness  of  breath 
Unusual  pain  anywhere 


Eye  disorders  and  defects 


Contagious  diseases 


Nervous  disorders 


Nutritional    and    general 
disturbances 


GROUP  II 


Signs 

Mouth  breathing 
Loud  breathing 
Nasal  voice 
Catarrh 
Frequent  colds 
Offensive  breath 
Chronic  cough 
Deafness 
Twitching  of  lips 
Headache 


Headache 
Crossed  eye 
Squinting 
Ho  " 


Disorders  of  nose,  throat, 
ear,  and  organs  of  res- 
piration 


k  too  near  face 


Decayed  teeth 
Discoloration  of  teeth 
Crooked  teeth 
Offensive  breath 


Eye  disorders  and  defects 


Teeth  defects 


HEALTH  OF  STUDENTS 


271 


Inability  to  hold  objects  well 

Spasmodic  movements 

Twitching  of  eye,  face,  or  any  part  of  body 

Nail  biting 

Perverted  tastes 

Sex  disturbances 

Pain  in  feet 

Toeing  markedly  out 

Flatfoot  gait 

Swelling,  puffiness  of  feet 

Excessive  perspiration  of  feet 

Unequal  height  of  shoulders 

Flat  chest 

Round  back  and  shoulders 

Stooping 

GROUP  III 


Prominent  upper  teeth 

Blank  expression 

Slow  mentality 

Poor  physical  development 

Inattention 

Slow  progress 

Peculiar  postures  when  reading 
Poor  reading  or  spelling 

Prominent  teeth 
Poor  articulation 
Broken  teeth 
Malnutrition 

Irritability 

Bad  temper 

Undue  emotion  of  any  sort 

Frequent  requests  to  go  out 

Timidity 

Stammering 

Cruelty 

Moroseness 

Solitary  habits 

Undue  embarrassment 

Undue  activity 

Misbehavior 


Nervous  disorders 


Defects  of  feet 


Incorrect  posture 


Disorders  of  nose,  throat, 
and  ear 


Eye  disorders  and  defects 


Teeth  defects 


Nervous  disorders 


272 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Deficient  weight 

Pallor 

Lassitude 

Perverted  tastes  (food) 

Slow  mentality 

Peculiar  or  faulty  postures 

Underdevelopment 

Excessive  fat 

Low  endurance 

Disinclination  to  play 

Fatigue 

Pigeon-toed  gait 
Shuffling,  inelastic  walk 
Exaggerated  knee  action  in  walking 
Shifting  from  foot  to  foot 
Standing  on  outer  edge  of  feet 
Standing  on  inner  side  of  feet,   heels 

turned  out 
Locking  knees 

Leaning  against  wall  or  desk 
Shoes  run  over  at  either  side 
Wearing  out  of  soles  asymmetrically 
Twitching  of  foot  muscles 


Nutritional    and    general 
disturbances 


Defects  of  feet  and  legs 
and  defective  movements 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 

Fifteen  years  ago  there  was  considerable  interest  in  the 
colleges  in  anthropometric  data  that  aimed  to  state  facts 
of  physical  efficiency.  Efforts  to  express  vitality  and 
strength  in  terms  of  indices  were  everywhere  popular. 
The  terms  vital-index,  height-weight-index,  are  not  used 
very  much  to-day  but  in  place  of  these  statements  of 
static  ability  have  come  certain  tests  emphasizing  what 
the  performer  can  do  with  his  muscles  and  nervous  system. 
The  report*  of  the  National  Committees  on  Standard 
Physical  Efficiency  Tests  present  valuable  data  on  the 
present  development  of  the  tests  for  physical  efficiency. 
Three  reports  are  available:  For  elementary  schools,  for 
secondary  schools,  and  for  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Y.  W.  C.  A., 

*  These  reports  may  be  secured  from  the  American  Physical  Education  Association,  93 
Westford  Ave.,  Springfield,  Mass. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  273 

Clubs,  and  Industrial  Associations.  It  would  seem  worth 
while  to  set  forth  some  of  the  most  interesting  and  impor- 
tant of  the  many  physical  efficiency  tests. 

University  of  California  physical  efficiency  test. — The 
program  of  physical  education  at  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia and  the  tests  in  use  there  conform  in  type  and 
quality  to  the  principles  set  forth  in  the  first  chapters  of 
this  book.  The  organization  and  administration  of  the 
efficiency  tests  are  given  below,  as  described  by  Professor 
Kleeberger: 

In  the  first  place,  on  entering  the  university,  all  men  are  carefully 
examined  by  the  medical  examiners  at  the  university  infirmary,  which 
is  a  very  important  and  extensive  department  of  the  university 
organization,  as  you  will  readily  see  from  the  following  figures. 

The  infirmary  is  under  the  direction  of  a  specialist  in  socialized  and 
preventive  medicine,  who  gives  his  entire  time  to  this  work.  It  main- 
tains a  staff  of  four  women  physicians,  five  men  physicians,  two  dentists, 
and  ten  nurses.  About  1600  entrants  are  given  medical  and  physical 
examination  each  year.  About  4000  students,  or  79  per  cent  of  the 
entire  student  body  in  1914-1915,  were  treated  in  the  dispensary  on  an 
average  of  eight  times  each,  making  a  total  of  about  31,687  personal 
treatments  given  during  the  year.  In  addition  to  the  dispensary  ser- 
vice, 669  students, — 13.6  per  cent  of  the  student  body, — were  given 
service  as  house  or  bed  patients,  remaining  in  the  hospital  an  average 
of  5.3  days  each.  Exactly  437  smallpox  vaccinations  and  123  typhoid 
inoculations  were  administered  during  the  same  year. 

All  men  needing  medical  attention  of  any  sort  are  referred  im- 
mediately to  this  department, — the  department  of  physical  education 
administering  only  first  aid  treatments  in  cases  of  injury.  In  organiz- 
ing the  work  of  the  department  of  physical  education  the  men  are 
divided  into  two  groups, — these  groups  determined  by  the  findings  of 
the  medical  examinations.  The  men  showing  organic  weakness,  de- 
formity, crippling,  etc.,  are  classed  as' "specials"  and  are  barred  from 
the  physical  efficiency  tests.  These  men  make  up  about  4  per  cent  of 
the  entering  classes,  and  are  given  special  attention  through  a  system 
of  individual  supervision  in  the  performance  of  special  assigned  exercises 
calculated  to  correct  their  specific  defects.  Photographs  are  taken  of  all 
men  entering  the  university.  This  is  done  in  the  front,  side,  and  rear 
views,  and  advice  is  then  given  each  individual  for  the  correction  of 
the  defects  in  posture  and  development  which  are  thus  so  clearly 
visualized  for  him. 

The  tests  previously  outlined  are  divided  into  three  groups,  to 
facilitate  the  administration  of  the  plan.  The  running,  jumping, 


274  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

vaulting,  falling,  and  body-lifting  elements  are  grouped  as  one  test, — 
the  first  test  given, — which  is  known  as  the  "agility  test";  the  swim- 
ming, diving,  and  life-saving  trials  are  known  as  the  "swimming  test"; 
and  the  boxing,  wrestling,  jiu-jitsu,  and  fencing  elements  constitute 
the  combat,  or  "defense  test." 

If  a  man  fails  in  his  first  test,  that  of  agility,  he  is  assigned  to  the 
activity  which  will  develop  ability  along  the  line  of  his  deficiency. 
Thus  a  freshman  who  is  below  par  in  running  and  jumping,  but  strong 
in  the  other  elements  of  the  agility  test,  is  given  a  choice  between  track 
and  gymnastic  class  work.^  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  man  on  trial  is 
good  in  running  and  jumping,  but  fails  in  the  agility  test  because  he  is 
weak  in  the  arms,  clumsy  in  his  falling,  and  unable  to  hand- vault  a 
common  obstacle,  he  is  held  in  the  gymnasium,  where  the  work  is 
planned  to  overcome  these  faults,  as  well  as  to  develop  in  him  the 
organic  strength  and  muscular  vigor  the  lack  of  which  he  himself  now 
realizes.  The  men  who  fail  in  the  agility  test  are  the  men  who  show 
plainly  the  need  of  fundamental  development,  such  as  is  most  easily 
accomplished,  where  large  groups  are  involved,  through  the  more 
formal  types  of  vigorous  gymnastic  drill.  This  group  of  men  averaged 
about  28  per  cent  of  the  entering  class  during  the  year,  1916-1917. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  a  freshman  passes  the  agility  test,  he  is  then 
questioned  as  to  his  ability  along  lines  of  combat  and  swimming,  it 
being  explained  clearly  that  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  pass  tests 
in  these  two  activities  if  he  wishes  to  have  free  choice  of  sports  during 
his  sophomore  year.  In  case  he  expresses  a  doubt  of  his  proficiency  in 
either  of  these  sports,  he  is  advised  to  enroll  in  the  one  most  in  question, 
that  he  may  pass  the  subsequent  tests,  when  they  are  given,  with  as 
high  a  score  as  possible.  He  is  privileged,  however,  to  elect  any  sport 
he  pleases,  from  golf  to  football,  during  the  remainder  of  this  first 
half-year. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  half-year,  all  men  are  again  enrolled 
in  the  gymnasium  classes  for  a  period  of  three  weeks  of  drill,  during 
which  time  those  who  feel  ready  for  the  combat  test  are  examined  as 
to  their  ability  in  self-defense.  If  the  applicant  fails  in  the  combat 
test,  he  then  has  a  choice  of  activities  limited  to  boxing,  wrestling,  and 
the  other  phases  of  combat  work,  or  an  alternative  of  remaining  in  the 
classes  emphasizing  formal  gymnastics  for  the  purposes  of  general 
development.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  passes  his  defense  test  (and 
about  60  per  cent  of  the  freshmen  do,  as  a  man  having  any  doubt  at 
the  beginning  generally  sets  about  seriously  to  prepare  for  the  ordeal), 
he  is  then  free  to  elect  any  sport  he  wishes  until  April  1,  at  which  time 
he  is  called  upon  to  report  and  either  pass  the  swimming  test  or  enroll 
for  that  work  until  he  can  pass  it.  About  70  per  cent  of  the  men  pass 
this  test  at  the  first  trial. 

In  this  way  the  men  are  prompted  to  enter  the  various  sports  which 
ensure  a  broad  physical  efficiency,  on  their  own  volition,  and  with  a 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


275 


definite  aim  in  view,  namely,  that  of  meeting  at  least  the  definite 
minimum  standard  of  proficiency  laid  down  and  if  possible,  of  making 
a  creditable  record.  This  method  of  attack  results  in  a  more  sincere 
type  of  work,  a  greater  breadth  of  development,  and  an  active  interest 


successfully  passes 

sion,"  and  is  free  to  elect  any  sport  he  may  desire. 

Men  who  pass  all  phases  of  their  physical  efficiency  test  with  a  grade 
of  "1,"  and  have  represented  the  university  on  at  least  one  varsity 
squad,  and  who  have  a  reputation  as  first-class  sportsmen,  are  eligible 
to  the  "  honor  division."  No  man  has  attained  this  distinction  as  yet, — 
the  above  method  having  been  in  force  only  two  years, — but  several 
are  now  approaching  it;  and  I  feel  sure  that  in  the  course  of  a  year  or 
two  at  the  most  we  shall  have  a  number  of  such  supermen — all-round 
athletes  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 

The  physical  efficiency  test  card  in  use  at  California  is 
given  below : 

Name. . 


(Doe,  John) 


Weight    Height    Number 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  TEST  CARD 


Date 

AGILITY  Grade 

Running  (100  yds.) 
fl3J  sees.  -  3} 
U2f    "      -2\ 

(lit    "      -lj     .... 
Jumping  (Broad) 
[14  feet  -  3] 
fUH  "    -2 

[17    "    -  lj        .... 

Vaulting  (Fence) 
[Nipples    -  3] 
« Shoulder-  2} 
[Eyes        -lj     .... 

Scaling 

[No  time  limit  3] 
\  7f  to  10  sees.  1  \ 
[Under  7f  "  lj . . . . 


Date 


Date, 


SWIMMING 
Distance 
50yds.-  3] 


Grade    DEFENSE 


Grade 


Boxing,  Wrestling, 
Fencing  (Check  test 
taken) 


Weight  control. 


Speed  (25  yds.) 
[25  sees.  -  3] 
\2Q  "  -2\ 

[15     "     -lj 

Dive 

[Height  of  5 feet  -3^ 
I  3  elective  types  -2 
)  4  prescribed  "    )  , 
2  elective 


Blocks  and 

counters 

Blows  or  holds, 


Initiative. 


276  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Falling  Rescue  (distance) 

[3  feet  obstacle  3)  f  2  yds.  -  3) 

U  "         "       2}            {  5    "    -2f                Sportsmanship. 
[$'**         "       lj....     [20    "    -  1J       .... 
Assignment Assignment Assignment 


All  of  the  students  at  California  are  not  physically  fit 
to  engage  in  competitive  sports  and  in  the  judgment  of 
the  department  it  is  necessary  that  developmental  gym- 
nastics be  employed  for  a  certain  number  to  enable  them 
later  to  pass  their  efficiency  tests.  It  is  important  to 
remember  though  that  Professor  Kleeberger  is  inclined 
to  favor  natural  gymnastics  in  this  developmental  and 
body-building  work. 

Columbia  University  physical  efficiency  test. — The 
problem  in  the  university  is  in  many  ways  different  from 
the  problem  of  physical  education  in  the  elementary 
school.  In  general  two  types  come  to  the  university: 
one  well  developed,  well  set  up;  the  other,  physically 
weak  and  without  stamina,  endurance,  or  skill.  There 
are  variations  from  these  two  main  classes.  The  physical 
efficiency  tests  serve  to  separate  the  wheat  from  the  chaff. 
At  Columbia  University  by  means  of  tests  in  use  since 
1904,  the  men  are  divided  into  three  groups : 

Group  A — Men  having  an  excellent  record  in  all 
the  tests.  These  men  are  permitted  to  engage  in  any 
of  the  college  sports. 

Group  B — Men  having  a  good  average  record 
register  in  one  of  the  regular  sections. 

Group  C — Men  needing  special  work.  These 
register  hi  a  special  section. 

THE  GROUP  A  TEST 

Students  classified  as  Group  A  men  may  meet  the  requirements  in 
the  Department  of  Physical  Education  by  participation  in  some  sport 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  277 

or  sports.  The  choice  of  activity  must  be  made  in  writing  and  filed 
in  the  Gymnasium  Office. 

A  student  must  score  40  points  (see  test  below)  and,  in  addition, 
receive  a  grade  of  A  or  B  on  his  physical  examination  (Dr.  Meylan's 
Office)  in  order  to  be  classified  in  Group  A. 

Attendance  is  taken  by  the  coach  or  manager  and  recorded  with  the 
Gymnasium  Office  each  Friday  night.  All  absences  from  these — as  in 
other  classes — are  reported  to  the  Dean  weekly. 

GROUP  A  TEST: 

One  Lap,       22  sec.         equals  10  points;  22^ sec.    equals  8  points 

High  Jump,    4ft.  Gin.       "      10     "       4  ft.  2  in  "     8      " 

Bar  Vault,      5  ft.  6  in.       "      10     "       5ft.  "     8      " 

Rope  Climb,  20  ft.  &  cross  "      10     "       20  ft.  &  return    "     8 
Swimming  "      10_    "       Swimming         "    _8^ 

50  points  40  points 

Tests  are  given  at  the  beginning  of  each  term.  Any  student  making 
35  points,  but  less  than  40  at  the  first  trial  may  take  it  again  at  the  end 
of  seven  weeks.  This  test  is  given  at  12  m.  daily  on  the  first  ten  days 
of  each  term. 

Final  Examinations: 
Physical  Education  Al :  Points. 

Running  High  Jump 12 

Bar  Vault 12 

Rope  Climb 6 

One  Lap  Run 10 

Three  Lap  Run  (Indoors) 10 

Daily  Work:  Carriage,  Effort,  Proficiency 50 

100 

Physical  Education  A2 :  Points. 

High  Horizontal  Bar— three  mounts 9 

Running  Broad  Jump 9 

One-Half  Mile  Run 12 

Swimming 20 

Daily  Work:  Carriage,  Effort,  Proficiency _50 

100 

Physical  Education  Bl :  Points. 

Chinning  (High  Bar) 12 

One  Standing  Broad  Jump 12 

Six  Lap  Run  (Indoors) 1" 

Swimming Jjj 

Daily  Work _2? 

100 


278  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Physical  Education  B2:  Points. 

Three  Standing  Broad  Jumps 12 

Mile  Run 12 

Handball 16 

Swimming 10 

Daily  Work 50 

Too 

Swimming. — The  following  tests  must  be  passed  by  every  student- 
Those  who  are  unable  to  pass  the  tests  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
must  make  an  appointment  for  two  lessons  a  week  and  report  regularly. 

Swimming  Tests: 

Freshmen: 

1.  Swim  one  length  of  pool,  breast  or  side  stroke. 

2.  Dive  or  jump  in  at  deep  end,  turn  around  and  swim  to  starting 

point. 

3.  One  length  of  pool  on  back. 

(Must  be  passed  before  May  10th.) 
Sophomores : 

1.  Four  lengths  of  pool,  using  any  stroke. 

2.  Two  lengths  on  back. 

3.  Treading  water  three  minutes. 

4.  Dive  or  jump  off  tower,  or  pick  up  hockey  puck. 

ELECTIVE 
Life-Saving;  Advanced  Swimming  (all  strokes). 

Physical  efficiency  tests  are  used  at  Barnard  College 
for  women.  The  test  consists  in  "  tactics,  free  standing 
exercises — exercises  on  ropes,  buck,  horse,  or  flying  rings. 
Such  exercises  are  chosen  as  will  demonstrate  the  qual- 
ilities  desired :  poise,  muscular  control,  coordination, 
quick  response  to  command,  accuracy,  endurance,  and 
strength  of  certain  large  groups  of  muscles."*  This 
test  measures  ability  in  formal  gymnastics;  whether  the 
qualities  determined  are  in  any  sense  general  qualities 
needs  to  be  demonstrated. 

*  Wayman,  Agnes  R.    "  Physical  Efficiency  Tests  as  a  Means  of  Determining  the  Type  of 
Physical  Work  a  Student  should  do." 

A  paper  presented  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Eastern  Society  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  the  College  Directors  of  Physical  Education  for  Women,  held  at  Vassar 
College,  April  22-23,  1921.  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Wayman  for  the  privilege 
of  seeing  this  unpublished  manuscript. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


279 


The  Canadian  standard  efficiency  tests. — The  National 
Council  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of 
Canada  through  its  test  committee  has  evolved  an 
efficiency  test  (15)  that  consists  of  four  standards  for 
boys  about  13  to  20  years  of  age.  It  considers  an 
intellectual  standard,  a  physical  standard,  a  religious 
standard,  and  a  service  standard  and  assigns  credits  to 
work  done  in  each  group  as  follows : 


INTELLECTUAL  STANDARD 
"Jesus  increased  in  wisdom" 


PHYSICAL  STANDARD 
"and  stature" 


1.  School  or  college 400 

2.  Sex  education 120 

3.  Public  speaking 120 

4.  Home  reading 70 

5.  Educational  lectures 50 

6.  Educational  trips 70 

7.  Craftsmanship 100 

8.  Collections,  Grade  1 70 

Observations,  Grade  2. . . 
Woodcraft,  Grades  3  to  8 


1.  Health  education 200 

2.  Camp  craft 150 

3.  Team  games 170 

4.  Group  games 50 

5.  Swimming 130 

6.  Running 100 

7.  Jumping 100 

8.  Throwing,  ,,,„ 100 


Total  Credits  Obtainable . . .  1000        Total  Credits  Obtainable ...  1000 


RELIGIOUS  STANDARD 
"and  in  favor  with  God" 


SERVICE  STANDARD 
"and  man." 


1.  Church  and  Sunday 

school 400 

2.  Mid-week    bible   discus- 

sion   200 

3.  Morning  watch 150 

4.  History  of  religion 50 

5.  Music 50 

6.  Poetry 50 

7.  Art 50 

8.  Nature 50 


1.  Member  boys'  organiza- 

tion   100 

2.  Ability  to  entertain 50 

3.  Training  for  service 200 

4.  Personal  service 140 

5.  Good  citizenship 130 

6.  Three  C's  campaign 100 

7.  Choosing  life  work 140 

8.  Heroes  of  service,  Grades 

1  to  4 140 

Nation  study,  Grades  5  to 
8.  . 


Total  Credits  Obtainable . . .  1000        Total  Credits  Obtainable . . .  1000 


280 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


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282  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  program  of  instruction  provides  for  definite  talks, 
meetings,  and  activities  throughout  the  year  and  oppor- 
tunity under  leadership  for  the  boy  to  earn  credits  in 
each  standard.  Awards  are  a  bronze  shield  for  a  group 
with  70  per  cent  of  the  total  credits  available,  a  diploma 
for  every  boy  who  tries  the  tests,  and  a  medal  with  four 
bronze  bars.  The  bronze  bars  represent  each  standard 
and  are  awarded  for  70  per  cent  efficiency  or  seven 
hundred  credits  of  the  possible  thousand  in  each  standard. 
The  medal  is  awarded  with  the  first  bar. 

Standard  Decathlon  test* — Detroit  public  schools.— 
The  Department  of  Physical  Education  in  the  Detroit 
Schools  has  utilized  the  desires  of  boys  to  do  stunts  and 
has  arranged  a  test  that  leads  to  a  gold,  silver,  or  bronze 
medal.  The  events  used  and  the  scores  assigned  are 
given  on  pages  280,  281. 

Decathlon  rules  state  the  conditions  of  the  test. 

In  medal  competition  each  contestant  may  try  eleven  events  and 
select  the  ten  best  but  must  include  the  first  three. 

Entrants  must  reach  an  average  of  650  for  the  chin,  stand  broad 
jump,  and  overhead  shot,  and  not  fall  below  a  minimum  of  220  points 
in  any  of  the  ten  selected  events. 

The  points  necessary  for  a  gold,  silver,  or  bronze  medal  shall  be 
8600,  7300,  and  6500,  respectively;  in  addition  a  total  of  50,  40,  and 
30  points  must  be  obtained  in  stunts  for  the  gold,  silver,  and  bronze 
medals,  respectively. 

Outdoor  athletic  test  for  boys. — This  test,  specially 
designed  for  rural  schools,  is  described  by  Dr.  Brown.** 
It  is  based  on  the  following  plan: 

1.  A  country  school  association  is  organized 

2.  Every  school  in  the  county  is  included 

3.  Every  boy  participates 

4.  Boys  classified  by  weight 

5.  Definite  events  by  each  weight  class 

*  See  also  the  standard  decathlon  events  for  boys  and  girls  as  given  by  the  Department  of 
Physical  Education,  California  State  Board  of  Education. 

**  Brown,  John  R.  Outdoor  Athletic  Teats  for  Boys.  Association  Press,  N.  Y.,  124  East 
28th  St. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


6.  Every  boy  in  all  events  in  his  class 

7.  Each  boy  tested  and  results  recorded 

8.  Percentage  basis  of  scoring  points 

Honor  awards  are  made  by  designation  of  the  boy  as 
school  champion,  or  weight  class  champion  of  the  county, 
etc.  The  awards  are  inexpensive  buttons,  certificates, 
etc.,  and  not  of  intrinsic  worth. 

The  events  and  basis  of  scoring  are  as  follows : 

EVENTS  AND  BASIS  OF  SCORING 

Weight  Classes  0  Points       Honor  Standard  100  Points 

60-80-Lb.  CLASS 

50-yard  Dash 10  sec.  8  sec.  6  sec. 

Standing  Broad  Jump 3  ft.  5  in.  5  ft.  6  in.  7  ft.  7  in. 

Running  Broad  Jump 5  ft.  10  in.          10  ft.  14  ft.  2  in. 

Baseball  Throw 70  ft.  120  ft.  170  ft. 

81-95-LB.  CLASS 

75- Yard  Dash 13  sec.  11  sec.  9  sec. 

Standing  Broad  Jump 3  ft.  11  in.          6  ft.  8  ft.  1  in. 

Running  Broad  Jump 6  ft.  10  in.          11  ft.  15  ft.  2  in. 

Baseball  Throw 100  ft.  150  ft.  200  ft. 

96-110-LB.  CLASS 

100- Yard  Dash 16  sec.  14  sec.  12  sec. 

Standing  Broad  Jump 4  ft.  5  in.  6  ft.  6  in.  8  ft.  7  in. 

Running  Broad  Jump 7  ft.  10  in.          12  ft.  16  ft.  2  in. 

Running  High  Jump 2  f t.  8Hn.         3  ft.  9  in.  4  ft.  9£  in. 

Baseball  Throw 130  ft.  180  ft.  230  ft. 

111-125-LB.  CLASS 

100- Yard  Dash 15  sec.  13  sec.  11  sec. 

Standing  Broad  Jump 4  ft.  11  in.          7  ft.  9  ft.  1  in. 

Running  Broad  Jump 8  ft.  10  in.          13  ft.  17  ft.  2  in. 

Running  High  Jump 2  ft.  1 H  in.        4  ft.  5  f t.  £  in. 

Baseball  Throw 145  ft.  195  ft.  245  ft. 

Putting  8-lb.  Shot 15  ft.  6  in.         28  ft.  40  ft.  6  in. 

UNLIMITED  CLASS 

100-Yard  Dash 14  sec.  12  sec.  10  sec. 

Standing  Broad  Jump 5  ft.  5  in.  7  ft.  6  in.  .9  ft.  7  in. 

Running  Broad  Jump 9  ft.  10  in.          14  ft.  18  ft.  2  in. 

Running  High  Jump 3  ft.  3Hn.         4  ft.  4  in.  5  ft.  4£  in. 

BasebaU  Throw 160  ft.  210  ft.  260  ft. 

Putting  8-lb.  Shot 22  ft.  6  in.         35  ft.  47  ft.  6  in. 


284  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Points  shall  be  scored  on  the  following  basis: 

All  Dashes,  for  every  1-5  second  better  than  the  minimum . . ". .  5  points 
Standing  Broad  Jump,  for  every  half  inch  better  than  the  mini- 
mum   1  point 

Running  Broad  Jump,  for  every  inch  better  than  the  minimum .  1  point 
Running  High  Jump,  for  every  quarter-inch  better  than  the 

mim'mum 1  point 

Baseball  Throw,  for  every  foot  better  than  the  minimum 1  point 

Putting  8-lb.  Shot,  for  every  3  inches  better  than  the  minimum. .  1  point 

Tables  indicating  the  method  of  scoring  are  available 
in  the  publication  describing  the  test. 
The  athletic  badge  test  for  boys  and  girls. 

1.     The  Playground  and  Recreation  Association 
of  America*  advocates  two  badge  tests,  one  for  boys 
and  one  for  girls. 
The  test  for  boys  is  as  follows: 

First  test. 

Pull-up  (chinning) 4  times 

Standing  broad  jump 5  ft.  9  in. 

60-yard  dash 83-5  sec. 

Second  test. 

Pull-up  (chinning) 6  times 

Standing  broad  jump 6  ft.  6  in. 

60-yard  dash 8  sec. 

or  100-yard  dash 14  sec. 

Third  test. 

Pull-up  (chinning) 9  times 

Running  high  jump 4  ft.  4  in. 

220-yard  run .28  sec. 

It  is  planned  that  boys  of  12  years  should  qualify  for  the  first 
test,  boys  of  13  years  for  the  second,  and  high  school  boys  for  the 
third.  Any  boy  may  enter  any  test,  however,  at  any  time. 

The  girls'  test  is  as  follows: 

First  test. 

All  up  Indian  club  race 30  sec. 

or  potato  race 42  sec. 

Basketball  goal  throwing 2  goals,  6  trials 

Balancing 24  ft.,  2  trials 

*  Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of  America,  1  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  City. 
Test  for  boys,  Bulletin  105;  for  girls,  Bulletin  121. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  285 

Second  test. 

All  up  Indian  club  race 28  sec. 

or  potato  race 39  sec. 

Basketball  goal  throwing 3  goals,  6  trials 

Balancing  (bean  bag,  or  book  on  head) 24  ft.,  2  trials 

Third  test. 

Running  and  catching 20  sec. 

Throwing  for  distance,  basketball 42  ft. 

or  volley  ball 44  ft. 

Volley  ball  serving 3  in  5  trials 

The  test  for  boys  would  seem  more  satisfactory 
than  the  one  for  girls.  The  girls'  test  lacks  the 
element  of  real  testing  that  is  present  in  the  boys7 
events.  The  Public  Athletic  League  of  Baltimore 
felt  a  need  for  revising  these  tests  and  offer  their 
own  badge  test.  The  one  for  the  girls  is  much 
superior  to  the  one  offered  by  the  Playground  and 
Recreation  Association. 

2.  The  Public  Athletic  League  of  Baltimore  has 
adopted  the  following  standards  which  every  boy 
ought  to  be  able  to  attain: 

First  test  for  bronze  badge: 

Pull-up  (chinning) 4  times 

Standing  broad  jump 5  ft.  9  in. 

60  yards  dash 9  sec. 

Second  test  (for  those  who  won  bronze  badge)— for  silver  badge: 

Pull-up  (chinning) 6  times 

Standing  broad  jump 6  ft.  6  in. 

100  yards  dash 13  2-5  sec 

No  age  nor  weight  limit  is  fixed,  any  boy  may  enter  any  test 
at  any  time  the  teacher  is  willing  to  act  as  judge. 

These  tests  are  simple,  consist  of  events  which  are  interesting, 
and  are  generally  acceptable.  The  test  requires  only  simple 
apparatus  and  a  comparatively  small  space.  They  can  be  con- 
ducted in  a  short  period  of  time  even  with  a  considerable  number 
of  boys,  and  the  measure  of  each  boy's  performance  can  be 
accurately  determined. 


286  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


CONTESTS 

The  following  general  rules  shall  govern  the  final  competition: 
No  boy  is  permitted  to  receive  more  than  one  badge  for  any  grade 
in  one  year. 

It  is  necessary  to  qualify  in  all  three  events  in  any  one  class  in 
order  to  win  a  badge. 

There  shall  be  but  one  trial  in  chinning,  one  in  the  dashes,  and 
three  in  the  jumps. 

1.    Pull-up  (Chinning) 

A  portable  chinning  bar  in  a  doorway,  a  horizontal  bar  in  the 
gymnasium  or  on  the  rungs  of  a  ladder  set  at  an  angle  against 
a  building  may  serve  the  purpose. 

Each  contestant  begins  with  his  hands  on  the  bar.  The  con- 
testant shall  extend  himself  to  his  full  length  before  and  after 
each  pull-up,  and  shall  also  pull-up  with  a  kick,  snap,  jerk,  or 
swing,  to  such  height  as  to  bring  his  "chin"  higher  than  the  bar. 
Lowering  himself  again  until  his  arms  are  straight,  he  repeats 
the  "Pull-up." 

2.  Standing  Broad  Jump 

Whenever  possible  it  is  best  to  prepare  a  jumping  pit  by 
digging  up  a  piece  of  ground  about  4  feet  by  25  feet  and  have  a 
wooden  joist  4  inches  deep  by  8  inches  wide  imbedded  in  the 
ground  at  one  end  of  the  pit,  flush  with  the  surface,  to  serve  as 
a  "take  off."  Each  competitor  is  allowed  three  jumps,  his  best 
jump  being  taken  as  his  record. 

The  feet  of  the  competitor  may  be  placed  in  any  position,  but 
shall  leave  the  ground  only  once  in  making  an  attempt  to  jump. 
When  the  feet  are  lifted  from  the  ground  twice,  or  two  springs 
are  made  in  making  the  attempt,  it  shall  count  as  a  jump  with- 
out result.  A  competitor  may  rock  back  and  forward,  lifting 
heels  and  toes  alternately  from  the  ground,  but  may  not  lift 
either  foot  clear  of  the  ground,  nor  slide  either  foot  along  the 
ground  in  any  direction. 

The  outer  edge  of  this  joist  shall  be  called  the  scratch  line  and 
the  measurement  of  each  jump  shall  be  made  at  right  angles  to 
the  nearest  break  in  the  ground  made  by  any  part  of  the  person 
of  the  competitor. 

3.  60  or  100  Yard  Dash 

A  stop-watch  is  necessary  for  timing  the  boys  in  this  event. 
Under  the  direction  of  a  starter  each  individual  competitor  takes 
his  position  on  the  starting  mark.  The  starter  gives  the  signal 
by  saying:  "On  the  mark,"  "Get  set,"  "Go."  At  the  word 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  287 

"Go"  the  timekeeper  starts  his  watch.  As  the  runner  crosses 
the  finish  line  (60  or  100  yards  from  the  starting  line),  the  tune- 
keeper  stops  his  watch.  The  time  indicated  on  the  stop  watch 
is  the  runner's  time. 

A  false  start  is  one  where  any  part  of  the  person  of  a  competitor 
touches  the  ground  in  front  of  his  mark  before  the  starter  pur- 
posely gives  his  signal.  The  third  false  start  shall  disqualify  the 
offender.  The  competitor  shall  keep  his  hands  behind  the  mark 
assigned  to  him. 

The  Public  Athletic  League  of  Baltimore  has  adopted 
the  following  standards  which  girls  ought  to  be  able 
to  attain: 

First  test  for  bronze  badge: 

Balancing once  in  2  trials 

Leg  raising 10  times 

Far-throw  basketball 25  ft. 

Any  girl  may  try  any  test  at  any  time  the  teacher  is  willing  to 
act  as  judge.  Any  age  or  weight  is  eligible.  The  same  rules 
govern  contests  as  in  boys'  badge  tests. 

1.    Balancing 

A  beam  2  by  4  inches,  12  feet  long,  is  set  so  the  2-inch  side  is  to 
be  walked  upon.  It  need  not  consequently  be  over  4  inches  high. 
Spalding  sells  a  balance  beam  suitable  for  indoors  for  $5.00.  One 
can  be  made  for  outdoors  for  $1.00. 

A  girl  should  start  at  center  of  beam  and  walk  forward  to  end; 
without  turning,  walk  backward  to  center;  turn,  walk  forward  to 
other  end;  turn,  walk  forward  to  starting  point. 

2.    Leg  Raising 

Use  chinning  bar  when  boys  are  not  using  it. 

Each  contestant  begins  with  hands  on  bar.  It  is  best  to  grasp 
bar  with  one  or  both  hands  facing  one.  She  shall  raise  both  legs, 
knees  straight,  to  a  right  angle  (without  any  more  swinging  than 
can  be  helped),  then  lower  to  original  hanging  position.  Repeat 
continuously  ten  times. 

3.    Far-throw  Basketball 

The  ball  shall  be  from  15  to  18  ounces  in  weight.  It  is  thrown 
from  a  stand  with  feet  apart  with  the  toes  at  the  line.  The  throw 
is  from  hands  over  the  head.  Swinging  the  arms  with  bending  of 
the  trunk  is  an  advantage.  The  toes  or  heels  may  be  raised,  but 
a  jump  is  not  permitted.  Touching  the  ground  in  front  of  the 


288  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

line  or  stepping  over  the  line  before  the  throw  is  measured  con- 
stitutes a  foul.  (A  foul  counts  as  one  trial.)  Three  trials  are 
given  each  contestant,  of  which  the  best  one  counts. 

The  ball  must  land  within  a  lane  10  feet  wide  and  must  strike 
the  ground  at  least  25  feet  from  the  throwing  line.  Whole  feet 
only  are  counted. 

Physical  efficiency  tests  for  grade  schools. — There  have 
been  several  reports  from  the  public  school  field  (16), 
directed  at  establishing  tests  for  physical  efficiency  of 
children.  Good  standards  have  been  worked  out  by 
Stecher*  and  the  results  of  Riley's  Rational  Athletics  are 
interesting  in  this  connection.  Much  remains  to  be  done 
in  this  field  to  secure  readings  that  will  establish  standard 
performance  in  many  different  events. 

The  Sheffield  swimming  and  life-saving  tests.  The 
objects  of  these  tests  are,  first,  to  stimulate  a  greater 
interest  in  swimming,  diving,  and  life-saving;  second,  to 
emphasize  the  necessary  progression  in  learning  each  of 
these  activities;  third,  to  standardize  swimming,  diving, 
and  life-saving. 

Leading  educators  and  directors  of  physical  education 
realize  the  growing  demands  for  instruction  in  swimming 
and  life-saving  in  our  educational  institutions  and  also 
the  necessity  of  requiring  a  swimming  and  life-saving 
test  as  one  of  the  graduation  requirements. 

The  following  tests  are  arranged  to  meet  the  demands 
of  schools,  clubs,  and  playgrounds.  However,  the  appli- 
cation of  the  tests  depends  upon  the  discretion  of  the 
instructor  and  the  ability  of  the  swimmer. 

Chart  No.  1  serves  as  a  detailed  record  of  the  work 
executed  in  each  section.  The  individual  is  graded  from 
1  to  10  points  over  each  test,  and  then  the  final  points 
awarded  are  recorded  on  Chart  No.  2. 

Important  references  on  swimming  and  life-saving  are 
given  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  (18). 

*  Stecher,  W.  A.     Educational  Gymnastics.     J.  J.  McVey  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


289 


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290 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Chart  No.  2  is  of  value  as  a  means  of  scoring  the 
individual's  record  for  the  class  or  school  awards.  The 
application  of  the  swimming  and  life-saving  tests  does 
not  require  that  the  instructor  follow  the  order  given. 
Any  part  of  the  test  may  be  passed  at  any  time  and  the 
individual  awarded  accordingly.  However,  it  is  urged 
that  the  maximum  of  one  hundred  points  be  the  final  goal. 

As  a  means  of  stimulating  greater  interest  and  encourag- 
ing each  boy  and  girl  to  become  a  swimmer  and  life-saver, 
awards  should  be  given.  The  nature  of  the  honor  will 
depend  upon  the  system  of  awards  used  in  each  particular 
school,  club,  or  playground.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
awards  be  graded  according  to  the  beginners,  inter- 
mediates, advanced,  and  life-saving  tests.  Those  passing 
all  of  the  tests  should  be  given  the  highest  award. 

CHART  No.  2 


THE  BEGINNER'S  SWIMMING  TEST 


Maximum 
Points 


Points 
Awarded 


1  Correct  rhythmic  breathing,  turning,  and 

submerging  face  20  times 1 

2  Face  submerge  floating;   hold  second  posi- 

tion five  seconds,  and  regain  standing 
position 2 

3  Face   submerge  push-off,   15  ft.;    regain 

standing  position 2 

4  True  floating;  hold  position  5  sec.;  regain 

standing  position 2 

5  Side-push-off;  regain  standing  position ....  2 

6  Back-push-off,  10ft.;  regain  standing  posi- 

tion   2 

7  Change  body  positions,  back,  side,  and  face .  3 

8  Advance  floating  positions,  arms  vertical, 

on  neck  at  side 3 

9  Swim  a  correct  elementary  back  stroke  or 

preliminary  crawl  20  yd.,  if   possible  in 

deep  water 4 

10  Swim  the  correct  Sheffield  sculling  stroke  or 
the  side  stroke  20  yd.,  if  possible  in  deep 
water 4 

Total..  25 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


291 


The  swimming  tests  are  helpful  not  only  for  testing  and 
grading  but  also  for  classification  purposes.  A  teacher  of 
swimming  in  camp,  school,  or  college  can  readily  place 
swimmers  in  appropriate  class  groups  by  using  these  tests. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  SWIMMING  TEST 

Maximum 
Points 

Points 
Awarded 

1     Swim  a  correct  side  stroke,  25  yd  

5 

2     Swim  a  correct  single  over-arm  side  stroke, 
25  yd  

5 

3     Swim  the  trudgeon  with  a  correct  coordina- 
tion, 25  yd.  .      .  .          

5 

4     Execute  part  one,  rudiments  of  diving  
5     Execute  part  two,  elementary  diving  

4 
6 

Total  

25 

Definite  progression  in  strokes  and  proficiency  stimulates 
swimmers  to  their  best  work.  The  success  in  teaching 
swimming  that  Miss  Nita  C.  Sheffield  has  had  at  Teachers 
College  and  the  University  of  California  is  due  in  large 
measure  to  this  organization. 


THE  ADVANCED  SWIMMING  TEST 

Maximum 
Points 

Points 
Awarded 

1     Swim  a  correct  trudgeon,  50  yd  
2     Swim  a  correct  trudgeon  crawl,  50  yd  
3     Swim  a  correct  crawl  50  yd 

4 
3 
5 

4    Swim  a  correct  alternate  racing  back  or 
breast  stroke  50  yd                      

3 

5     Execute  a  correct  racing  turn  
6     Execute  a  plunge  for  distance,  35  ft  .  .  
7     Execute    part    three,   advanced    diving  — 
running  swan  dive 

2 
1 

4 

8    Execute    part    three,   advanced    diving  — 
back  dive                                       

3 

Total.. 

25 

The  advanced  swimming  test  represents  a  high  degree 
of  proficiency  in  swimming.  For  most  persons  several 
years  of  patient  and  earnest  work  will  be  necessary  to 
pass  this  test. 


292 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


THE  LIFE-SAVING  TEST 

Maximum 
Points 

Points 
Awarded 

1     Execute  motionless  floating  for  at  least  one 
minute  .  . 

1 

(If  one  is  unable  to  execute  horizontal 
floating  —  that  is,  if  the  body  is  heavier 
than  water  displacement  —  use  a  scull- 
ing arm  motion  or  crawl  kick.) 
2    Tread  water  for  at  least  one  minute  
(If  desired,  one  may  also  use  a  sculling 
arm  motion.) 
3     Dive  or  jump  from  a  five  or  ten-foot  plat- 
form, swim  25  yd.    Side  stroke,  upper  arm 
held  in  carry  position.  .  .  . 

1 
1 

4     Execute  shallow  dive  and  swim  25  yd.  on  the 
back,  arms  held  in  carry  position  
5     Jump  in  water  dressed,  undress,  and  con- 
tinue swimming  50  yd. 

1 
4 

(Wearing  apparel  should  consist  of  shoes, 
waist  or  coat,  skirt  or  trousers.) 
6     Surface  dive,  locating  and  recovering  object  . 
(1)  Swim  25  yd.,  execute  surface  dive 
in  deep  water  and  bring  up  a 
six-pound  object,  continue  swim- 
ming with  object  on  hip  10  yd. 
(2)    Execute  a  shallow  dive  and  swim 
under  water  from  10  to  30  ft. 
7    Execute  the  following  breaks  while  in  deep 
water  

4 
5 

(1)    Wrist  grasp 
(2)    Front  neck  grasp 
(3)    Body  grasp. 
(4)    Rear  neck  grasp 
8    Execute  the  following  carry  methods  while 
in  deep  water 
(1)    Head  carry,  10  yd. 
(2)    Under  arm  carry,  10  yd. 
3)    Side  chest  carry,  10  yd. 
4)    Side  head  carry,  10  yd. 
5)   Cramp  carry,  10  yd.  executed  with 
trudgeon,  crawl,  or  breast  stroke 
9     Place  victim's  body  over  edge  of  pool  or 
bank  preparatory  to  resuscitation  
10    Execute  Schafer  method  of  resuscitation.  . 

1 
2 

Total  

25 

PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  293 

Sargent's  physical  test.  Dr.  Sargent  has  recently* 
proposed  a  test  which  seeks  to  measure  the  strength, 
speed,  energy,  and  skill  of  the  neuro-muscular  mechanism 
as  applied  to  the  overcoming  of  the  force  of  gravity. 
An  index  is  derived  from  consideration  of  the  vertical 
height  jumped,  and  the  height  and  weight  of  the  jumper. 
The  test  is  easy  to  conduct  and  although  it  has  not  been 
tested  extensively  and  results  are  not  known,  it  promises 
to  be  a  very  valuable  measure  of  physical  efficiency.  It 
should  be  studied  in  connection  with  other  standard 
tests.** 

A  SCALE  FOR  MEASURING  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  it  was  stated  that 
there  was  no  scale  in  physical  education  similar  in  type 
and  quality  to  the  scales  available  for  use  in  measuring 
accomplishments  in  other  phases  of  the  school.  Efforts 
have  been  made  in  this  direction,  however,  and  Professor 
Rapeer  suggests  a  scale  (17)  which  has  many  splendid 
features.  It  may  be  exactly  what  is  desired.  At  present 
it  has  not  been  tried  sufficiently  to  estimate  its  real  worth. 
It  is  concrete,  easy  to  use,  and  appears  very  promising. 
The  scale  as  reported  in  the  16th  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education  is  as  follows: 

Scale  for  measuring  physical  education 

(Based  on  a  100  points) 

I.    Health  scale  (Rapeer's) .  . . . . total  points  25 

Count  off  four  points  for  each  serious  ailment  or  defect  re- 
ported during  the  school  year.  Add  the  four  points  when 
remedied  or  corrected.  For  uncleanliness  reported,  count 
off  one  and  do  not  add  one  when  corrected.  Subtraction 
should  be  in  proportion  to  gravity  and  after-consequence 

*  Sargent,  D.  A.  "The  Physical  Test  of  a  Man."  School  and  Society,  p.  128,  January 
29.  1921. 

Ibid.     American  Physical  Education  Review,  May,  1921. 

**  Finkelstein,  W.,  and  Williams,  J.  F.  Correlation  of  Efficiency  Testa,  Journal  American 
Medical  Association,  May  13,  1922,  p.  1454. 


294 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


of  ailments  but  it  is  not  attempted  here.  (Cf.  footnote* 
for  standard  terminology  and  classification  of  school 
ailments.) 

(Good  posture**  should  be  an  item  in  the  health  scale. 

This  seems  very  necessary. — J.  F.  W.) 
II.    Physiological  efficiency  scale  (Foster's) total  points  15 

Follow  directions  given  by  Dr.  W.  L.  Foster  in  the  American 
Physical  Education  Review  for  December,  1914.  Pulse 
rate  (standing)  (1)  before,  (2)  immediately  after,  and  (3) 
45  seconds  after  a  definite  amount  of  work  has  been  done 
(running  in  place  for  exactly  15  seconds  by  stop-watch,  at 
rate  of  180  steps  per  minute). 


METHOD  OF  MAKING  TEST 

1.  Take  pulse  rate  standing  for  thirty  seconds  or  longer,  if  there 
seems  to  be  much  nervousness.   Then  record  the  rate  per  minute  (A) . 

2.  Have  the  applicant  run  in  place  for  exactly  15  seconds  by  stop 
watch,  at  the  rate  of  180  steps  per  minute.    Then  have  applicant  stop 
and  stand  at  ease.    Take  pulse  rate  immediately  for  5  seconds  (or  for 
15  seconds  until  observer  becomes  proficient  in  taking  pulse  rate  and 
using  stop  watch).    Record  the  rate  per  minute  (B). 

3.  After  applicant  has  stood  at  ease  for  45  seconds  take  the  pulse 
rate  per  minute  again.    Record  the  rate  per  minute  (C). 

4.  Add  together  the  values  of  the  rates  in  1,  2,  and  3,  as  given  below, 
observing  minus  signs.    The  total  represents  the  final  mark. 


Pulse  rate 
before  test 
100  or  less 
101  to  105 
106  to  110 
111  to  115 
116  to  120 
121  to  125 
126  to  130 
131  to  135 

Points 

0 
-1 
-2 
-3 

-4 
-5 
-6 

-1 

Difference  in  pulse  rate    Difference  in  pulse  rate 
before  and  immediately    before  test  and  after  45" 
after  test  (B-A)             rest—  standing  (C-A) 
Oto20        15  (maximum)        5                 -1 
21  to  30        13                            6  to  10        -2 
31  to  40        11                          11  to  15        -3 
41  to  50         9                          16  to  20        -4 
51  to  60         7                          21  to  25        -5 
61  to  70         5 

*  See  the  writer's  School  Health  Administration, 


351,  and    Educational  Hygiene, 


ee      e  wers     coo       ea  mnstraton,  page          ,  a 

pages  225  and  211,  also  The  Administration  of  School  Medical  Inspection,  page  60  and  the 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  for  1913,  page  657.  Standardization  of 
the  examinations  has  beensuggested  in  these  volumes  and  Dr.  B.  T.  Baldwin,  of  Swarthmore, 
Pa.,  has  also  made  certain  standardizations.  The  Dunfermline,  Scotland,  index  andstandard- 
ization  of  nutrition  is  used  by  the  New  York  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the 
Poor  and  seems  the  best  obtainable.  See  F.  A.  Manny,  School  and  Society,  Jan.  22,  1916. 
**Goldwaite,  Joseph,  "The  Relation  of  Posture  to  Human  Efficiency,"  Boston 
Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Dec.  9,  1909. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


295 


Example:  A  pupil  has  a  pulse  rate  of  95  at  the  beginning  (A),  then 
one  of  130  after  running  the  United  States  double  quick  time  (180  steps 
per  minute)  for  15  seconds  (B),  and  finally  a  rate  of  110  per  minute  after 
standing  at  rest  for  45  seconds.  His  A  rate  is  less  than  100,  so  he  would 
get,  according  to  the  left-hand  table,  0  points.  The  difference  between 
B  and  A  is  (130-95)  35,  which  according  to  the  middle  table  would  give 
him  11  points  out  of  a  possible  15.  The  difference  between  C  and  A  is 
(110-95)  15,  which  according  to  the  right-hand  table  gives  him  —3 
points. 

Add  together  the  three  values  (0,  11,  and  —3)  and  we  have  a  final 
score  for  physiological  efficiency  of  8  out  of  a  possible  15. 

III.    Physical  development  scale  (Baldwin's) total  score    20. 

Use  Professor  Baldwin's  scales  for  boys  and  girls  given  in  the 
Fifteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 
Part  I,  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois.  A 
card  for  each  child  is  obtainable  from  the  inventor,  Professor  B.  T. 
Baldwin,  Swarthmore,  Pa. 

AGE  STANDARDS  FOR  BALDWIN'S  TWO  COEFFICIENTS  FOR  BOYS  AND  GIRLS 


Age 

52 

6 

62 

7 

72 

8 

82 

9 

92 

10 

102 

11 

W-H 

% 

Q5 

Q6 

98 

1  07 

1  09 

1  1? 

1  17 

1  19 

1  23 

1  30 

1  33 

VH 

1  16 

1  44 

1  50 

1  61 

1  71 

1  73 

1  85 

1  86 

?03 

?05 

?,?,& 

?,?,1 

W-H.. 

.93 

.92 

.95 

1.02 

1.04 

1.11 

1.13 

1.13 

1.18 

1.22 

1.33 

1.36 

V-H  

.93 

1.33 

1.36 

1.51 

1.61 

1.65 

1.66 

1.71 

1.76 

1.89 

1.98 

2.07 

Age 

II2 

12 

122 

13 

132 

14 

142 

15 

152 

16 

162 

17 

172 

W-H 
B  — 
V.H. 

1.33 

1.42 

1.46 

1.52 

1.51 

1.55 

1.59 

1.63 

1.78 

1.79 

1.88 

1.90 

1.88 
3.53 

2.22 

2.35 

2.52 

2.59 

2.57 

2.66 

2.79 

3.00 

3.23 

3.21 

3.30 

3.50 

W-H 
G  — 
V-H 

1.49 

1.51 

1.53 

1.62 

1.69 

1.73 

1.76 

1.84 

1.83 

1.84 

2.78 

1.85 

1.86 

1.87 
2.90 

2.09 

2.22 

2.38 

2.46 

2.44 

2.50 

2.54 

2.63 

2.73 

2.81 

2.89 

B  =  Boys         W-H  =  Weight-height  coefficient  (weight  -^  height) 
G  =  Girls          V-H  =  Vital-height  coefficient  (breathing  capacity  -f- 
height) 


296  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Deductions:  For  each  half-year  that  the -pupil  falls  below  normal 
figures  for  the  weight-height  coefficients  given  on  Baldwin's  cards  for 
his  age,  deduct  one  and  one-half  points,  also  for  each  half-year  below 
the  normal  for  the  vital-height  coefficient.  That  is,  three  points  are 
deducted  from  the  possible  score  of  twenty  if  the  pupil  falls  a  half-year 
below  the  norm  for  his  age  in  both  these  coefficients,  or  six  points  for 
a  full  year's  deviation  below  in  both.  Weight-height  coefficient  equals 
weight  divided  by  height.  Vital-height  coefficient  equals  breathing 
capacity  divided  by  height.  The  measures  are  for  nude  children  and  are 
perhaps  a  little  high.  (See  Baldwin's  bulletin  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  and  his  report  in  the  Fifteenth  Yearbook.} 

IV.    Physical  ability  scale  (Stecher's) total  score        25 

Use  the  following  revised  scores  for  different  abilities 
developed  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Stecher  as  Director  of  Physi- 
cal Education  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Philadelphia.* 
Deductions:  five  points  to  be  cut  off  for  each  year 
below  standard  for  age  and  sex  for  good  performances. 
(See  following  chart.)** 
V.  Mental  qualities  scale  (Rapeer's) 15 

100 

This  test  is  suggested  in  order  to  give  some  weight  to 
several  mental  qualities  not  tested  above — ability  to 
cooperate,  qualities  of  leadership  displayed,  willing- 
ness to  practice  good  posture,  good  hygiene,  and  good, 
clean  living,  knowledge  of  physical  education,  etc. 
Deductions:  according  somewhat  to  the  probability 
curve. 
0  to  2  points  deducted  for  about  13  per  cent  of  the 

children.    Score 14-15 

3  to  5  points  deducted  for  about  20  per  cent  of  the 

children.    Score 12-13 

6  to  10  points  deducted  for  about  34  per  cent  of  the 

children.    Score 6-10 

11  to  13  points  deducted  for  about  20  per  cent  of  the 

children.    Score 3-5 

14  to  15  points  deducted  for  about  13  per  cent  of  the 

children.    Score 0-2 

The  percentages  are  based  on  a  thousand  or  more 
pupils  and  can  not  be  rigidly  adhered  to  for  a  single 
class  of  forty  pupils. 

The  part  of  the  above  scale  dealing  with  mental  qualities  would  seem 
less  satisfactory  than  the  preceding  parts. 

*  See  also  his  form  of  report  and  score  sheet  for  determining  the  efficiency  of  a  school  in 
physical  education,  also  his  Educational  Gymnastics,  J.  J.  McVey  Company,  Philadelphia. 

**  The  average  of  a  pupil's  attainments  in  at  least  eight  of  the  twelve  events  is  to  be  taken 
as  his  general  mark  on  this  scale.  See  page  297. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


297 


CHART  SHOWING  AGE-AIMS  (AVERAGE  PERFORMANCES)  ALSO,  IN  PAREN- 
THESES, GOOD  PERFORMANCES,  BY  AGES  AND  SEX  (AFTER  STECHER) 


EVENTS 

Years 
8 

9 

10     |     11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

RUNNING  50 
YARDS 

(In  seconds  and 
tenths) 

Q 
B 

9.4 
(9.0) 

9.0 

(8.8) 

9.2 

(8.8) 

8.8 

(8.6) 

8.8 
(8.4) 

8.4 
(8.2) 

8.6 
(8.2) 

8.2 
(8.0) 

8.4 
(8.0) 

8.0 
(7.6) 

8.4 
(8.0) 

7.8 

(7.6) 

8.4 
(7.8) 

7.6 

(7.2) 

8.2 
(7.6) 

7.4 

(7.0) 

RUNNING  60 
YARDS 

(In  seconds  and 
tenths) 

G 
B 

12.6 
(10.0) 

11.8 

(9.4) 

12.4 
(9.8) 

11.4 

(9.2) 

11.6 
(9.2) 

10.8 
(9.0) 

11.0 
(9.0) 

10.4 

(8.8) 

10.8 
(8.6) 

10.0 

(8.2) 

10.8 
(8.2) 

9.8 
(8.0) 

10.8 
(8.6) 

9.4 
(7.6) 

11.0 
(9.4) 

9.0 

(7.6) 

RUNNING  75 
YARDS 

(In  seconds  and 
tenths) 

o 

B 

15.4 
(12.4) 

14.1 
(11.6) 

14.6 
(11.0) 

13.6 

(10.8) 

14.2 
(10.4) 

13.2 

(9.8) 

13.8 
(10.2) 

12.6 

(9.8) 

13.6 
(10.2) 

12.2 

(9.6) 

13.4 
(10.4) 

11.8 

(8.8) 

14.0 
(11.0) 

11.4 

(8.4) 

14.4 
(11.8) 

11.0 

(8.0) 

RUNNING  100 
YARDS 

(In  seconds  and 
tenths) 

a 

B 

19.2 
(18.0) 

19.2 
(18.0) 

18.6 
(16.8) 

18.6 

(16.8) 

17.2 
(15.8) 

17.2 

(15.8) 

16.8 
(15.6) 

16.2 

(15.2) 

16.6 
(15.6) 

15.4 
(15.0) 

16.4 
(15.4) 

15.0 

(14.4) 

16.2 
(15.4) 

14.2 

(13.6) 

16.2 
(15.2) 

13.4 

(13.0) 

STANDING  BROAD 
JUMP 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

0 
B 

3.0 

(4.4) 

3.4 

(4.4) 

3.1 

(4.6) 

3.8 
(4.10) 

3.3 
(4.9) 

4.0 

(5.4) 

3.6 
(5.0) 

4.3 

(5.10) 

3.8 
(5.3) 

4.6 
(6.3) 

3.10 
(5.6) 

4.9 
(6.6) 

4.0 
(6.0) 

5.2 
(6.10) 

4.1 
(6.0) 

5.5 

(7.4) 

RUNNING  BROAD 
JUMP 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

O 
B 

5.5 
(6.0) 

6.0 

(6.9) 

5.6 
(6.2) 

6.6 

(7.0) 

5.10 
(6.8) 

7.0 

(7.6) 

6.6 
(7.8) 

8.3 

(9.1) 

7.2 
(8.4) 

9.6 

(10.8) 

8.0 
(9.0) 

11.4 
(12.2) 

9.0 
(10.8) 

12.6 

(13.5) 

9.0 
(11.8) 

13.5 

(14.7) 

TRIPLE  STANDING 
BROAD  JUMP 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

G 
B 

10.4 
(12.0) 

12.0 

(14.3) 

10.6 
(12.6) 

12.3 

(14.8) 

10.10 
(14.2) 

13.0 

(15.9) 

12.1 
(14.8) 

14.0 

(16.9) 

12.5 
(15.8) 

14.6 

(18.7) 

12.9 
(17.0) 

15.1 

(19.0) 

13.0 
(17.0) 

16.4 
(20.7) 

13.10 
(17.7) 

18.1 
(22.4) 

RUNNING  HOP, 
STBP,  AND  JUMP 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

G  (10  foot 

start) 

B  (unlim- 
ited run) 

9.2 
(11.0) 

10.0 
(10.6) 

11.6 
(13.9) 

13.0 

(15.5) 

13.8 
(17.0) 

16.4 

(20.5) 

14.6 
(18.8) 

18.0 
(23.0) 

15.5 

(21.4) 

18.8 
(24.5) 

15.6 
(21.0) 

19.9 
(26.0) 

16.4 
(21.2) 

21.7 
(29.0) 

16.6 
(20.0) 

23.0 
(29.5) 

RUNNING  HIGH 
JUMP 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

Q 
B 

2.2 
(2.6) 

2.2 

(2.8) 

2.5 

(2.8) 

2.5 

(2.10) 

2.8 
(2.10) 

2.8 
(3.2) 

2.9 
(3.0) 

2.11 

(3.4) 

2.10 
(3.2) 

3.1 

(3.6) 

3.2 
(3.3) 

3.4 

(3.9) 

2.11 
(3.1) 

3.6 

(4.2) 

2.9 
(3.1) 

3.9 

(4.5) 

BASKETBALL  FAR 
THROW 
OVERHEAD 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

0 

B 

12.2 
(17.0) 

14.4 
(19.0) 

13.8 
(20.0) 

16.2 

(22.0) 

15.5 
(25.0) 

18.2 
(26.0) 

17.7 
(28.0) 

20.3 
(30.0) 

19.4 
(31.0) 

23.3 
(35.6) 

21.3 
(35.0) 

24.1 
(37.0) 

22.2 
(35.0) 

26.7 
(37.6) 

23.4 
(36.0) 

29.1 
(39.0) 

BASKETBALL 
ROUND  ARM 
FAR  THROW 

(In  feet  and  inches) 

G  (one  step 
permitted) 

B  (one  step 
permitted) 

13.4 
(25.0) 

18.5 
(36.0) 

15.1 
(31.0) 

22.3 

(44.0) 

17.0 
(36.0) 

25.6 
(47.0) 

19.3 

(38.0) 

28.7 
(53.0) 

22.2 
(42.0) 

32.9 
(60.0) 

25.4 
(53.0) 

36.9 
(70.0) 

27.8 
(55.0) 

41.5 
(73.0) 

30.0 
(57.0) 

46.8 
(73.0) 

INDOOR  BASEBALL 
FAR  THROW 

a  (unlim- 
ited run) 

B  (unlim- 
ited run) 

23.0 
(45.0) 

37.7 

(71.0) 

25.9 
(56.0) 

47.4 

(86.0) 

30.6 
(60.0) 

57.2 
(104.0) 

35.0 
(68.0) 

67.0 
(113.0) 

43.0 
(80.0) 

77.2 
(120.0) 

48.9 
(87.0) 

88.0 
(141.0) 

53.0 
(106.0) 

102.1 
(151.0) 

53.5 
(102.0) 

108.1 
(187.0) 

298  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  New  York  state  test. — A  state  wide  test  was 
carried  out  in  the  public  schools  of  New  York  state  in 
1919-1920.  Such  a  test,  to  be  successful,  involves  a  great 
deal  of  care  in  organization.  For  the  first  year  of  the 
test  over  three  hundred  thousand  children  competed. 
Results  came  in  from  fifty-six  cities  and  two  hundred  and 
three  villages,  involving  the  participation  of  80  per  cent 
of  the  school  enrolment.  The  test  is  given  in  full.  The 
circular  and  scoring  table  are  models  of  clearness.  They 
are  responsible  in  large  measure  for  the  success  of  the 
undertaking. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 

THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

A  Plan  For  a  Statewide  Physical  Ability  Test 

This  circular  contains  suggestions  and  plans  for  carrying  out  a  simple 
physical  efficiency  test  of  boys  and  girls  above  the  sixth  grade,  based 
on  physical  ability  in  fundamental  athletics:  (1)  running,  (2)  jumping, 
(3)  chinning  for  boys,  and  (1)  running,  (2)  running  and  catching, 
(3)  throwing  for  girls. 

The  events  are  already  known  throughout  the  State.  They  are  used 
in  recreation  and  class  work.  The  plan  submitted  here  provides  a  way 
to  score  these  events  and  to  compare  the  results.  The  plan  is  simple 
enough  to  be  easily  used  by  a  school  that  has  never  before  given  such 
tests.  It  is  also  comprehensive  enough  to  include  the  largest  city 
system  in  the  State  and  provide  equal  and  fair  opportunity  to  the 
smallest  village  high  school.  It  provides  suggestions  for  score  sheets 
and  methods  of  tabulating  results  and  a  form  of  report  for  submitting 
final  totals  to  the  State  Department  so  that  statewide  championships 
may  be  announced.  The  tests  will  not  take  the  place  of  the  interschool 
athletic  meets  of  usual  type  where  selected  athletes  represent  each 
school,  but  should  be  conducted  well  in  advance  of  such  a  field  day  and 
will-  contribute  to  it  by  helping  determine  who  the  best  candidates  are 
for  the  selected  teams. 

DETAILS  OF  TEST 

A  contest  open  to  all  secondary  schools  and  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
in  the  State. 

Conditions. — Eighty  per  cent  of  the  enrolment  on  May  1  must  be 
tested  between  May  1  and  May  22,  results  tabulated  as  outlined 
below  and  report  sent  in  on  or  before  May  26. 

Awards. — The  state  will  be  divided  into  five  sections  and  the  winning 
city,  high  school  class,  and  grade  scores  announced  in  each. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


299 


Section  1  includes  all  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class 

Section  2  includes  all  cities  of  the  third  class 

Section  3  includes  all  villages  having  a  superintendent  of  schools 

Section  4  includes  all  villages  under  district  superintendents  having 
ten  or  more  teachers  or  that  employ  their  own  director  of  physical 
education 

Section  5  includes  all  villages  having  secondary  schools  under  sole 
supervision  of  state  teachers  of  physical  education 

The  grand  champions  for  the  State  will  also  be  announced  (212 
winners  in  all). 

Any  school,  class,  or  grade  in  section  1  (cities  of  first  and  second  class) 
may  compete  for  sectional  and  state  honors,  provided  it  meets  the 
requirements  of  the  test,  even  if  the  city  as  a  unit  does  not  compete  for 
grand  championships. 

Pupil  classification. — Two  divisions  for  scoring  standards;  junior 
division  includes  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  first  year  high  schools; 

EVENTS   AND   SCORING   STANDARDS 


JUNIOR   STANDARDS 

SENIOR   STANDARDS 

BOYS 

Min. 

Honor 

Max. 

Min. 

Honor 

Max. 

(0) 

(50) 

(100) 

(0) 

(50) 

(100) 

1     100  yard  dash  —  5  points  for 
every  1/5  second  better 

than  minimum  

16  sec. 

14  sec. 

12  sec. 

15  sec. 

13  sec. 

11  sec. 

2     Standing    broad    jump    (2 

trials  ;  use  best)  —  2  points 

for  every  inch  better  than 
minimum  

4'  5" 

6'  6" 

8'  7" 

4'  11" 

V 

9'1* 

3     Pull-ups  (chinning  the  bar) 
—  10  points  for  every  pull- 
up  better  than  minimum.  . 

0  times 

5  times 

10  times 

2  times 

7  times 

12  times 

JUNIOR   STANDARDS 

SENIOR   STANDARDS 

GIRL8 

Min. 

Honor 

Max. 

Min. 

Honor 

Max. 

(0) 

(50) 

(100) 

(0) 

(50) 

(100) 

1     50  yard  dash  —  5  points  for 
every  1/5  second  better 

10  1/5* 

8  1/5" 

6  1/5" 

94/5" 

74/5* 

54/5* 

2     Running    and    catching  —  2 
points  every  1/5  second 
better  than  minimum  

27" 

22" 

17" 

25" 

20" 

15* 

3     Basketball,    far    throw    (2 

throws;       use      best)  —  2 

points  for  every  foot  bet- 
ter than  minimum  

13' 

38' 

63' 

17' 

42' 

67' 

300  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

senior  division  includes  second,  third,  and  fourth  years  of  high  school. 
Those  pupils  taking  work  in  more  than  one  grade  or  class  shall  be  con- 
sidered in  the  advanced  class  if  they  are  taking  two  or  more  subjects 
in  that  class.  Postgraduates  and  training  class  pupils  are  not  to  be 
included,  so  do  not  count  in  the  enrolment. 

Rides  for  events. — The  usual  rules  of  the  Amateur  Athletic  Union 
shall  govern  the  running  and  jumping  events.  Timing  must  be  by 
stop  watch.  Contestants  may  not  run  or  jump  in  spike  shoes;  sneakers 
or  rubber-soled  shoes  are  required  to  make  it  fair  for  the  many  con- 
testants who  would  not  have  spikes. 

Detailed  rules  for  the  girls'  events  nos.  2  and  3  may  be  found  in 
New  York  State  Physical  Training  Syllabus,  page  193. 

Conducting  the  test. — All  local  plans  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  local 
school  officials.  The  director  of  physical  education  and  principals  and 
teachers  of  the  schools  concerned  shall  run  off  events  and  make  compu- 
tations of  class  and  school  scores.  The  results  for  the  entire  system 
shall  be  forwarded  by  the  superintendent  of  schools  who  shall  certify 
as  to  enrolment  etc.  on  blank  similar  to  one  shown  below. 

In  section  4  schools,  principals  shall  certify  to  and  forward  results. 

In  section  5  schools,  results  shall  go  from  principal  of  school  to  his 
state  teacher  of  physical  education,  who  shall  make  tabulations  and 
comparisons  for  use  in  the  awarding  for  zone  championships  before 
sending  final  tabulations  to  state  office. 

The  state  supervisor  of  physical  education  will  make  such  check  upon 
the  returns  as  may  be  necessary  before  announcing  the  winners. 

Scoring;  individual  and  class. — The  points  made  in  the  three  events 
by  each  pupil  are  to  be  added  together  and  divided  by  3  to  get  the 
pupil's  score.  All  who  equal  or  exceed  the  honor  standard,  50  points, 
in  each  and  all  events,  shall  be  considered  to  have  passed  the  test  with 
honor.  All  whose  average  or  final  score  equals  or  exceeds  75,  with  high 
honor. 

The  total  of  the  pupil  scores  of  80  per  cent  of  the  boys  enrolled  is  to 
be  divided  by  that  number  (80  per  cent)  to  get  boys'  scores  for  class, 
and  same  for  80  per  cent  of  girls.  The  final  class  score  is  determined 
by  dividing  the  total  of  points  made  by  both  boys  and  girls  by  the  total 
competing. 

The  school  score  is  found  by  adding  totals  of  classes  and  dividing  by 
number  of  contestants.  City  score  is  computed  by  adding  totals  of 
schools  and  dividing  by  number  of  pupils  competing.  Local  officials 
should  announce  individual,  class,  and  school  awards. 


Purpose  of  20  Per  Cent 

The  20  per  cent  whose  record  is  not  asked  for  is  intended  first  of  all 
to  include  those  physically  unfit  to  compete,  those  who  are  absent  for 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


301 


any  reason,  and  the  balance  may  be  made  up  of  those  who  make  the 
lowest  scores  in  the  test. 

Medical  safeguards— The  school  medical  certificate  should  be  con- 
sulted to  determine  the  physical  fitness  of  each  individual  to  compete 
in  the  test.  Doubtful  cases,  such  as  those  who  may  have  been  recently 
ill  or  whose  regular  class  work  in  physical  education  leads  the  physical 
director  to  doubt  their  condition,  should  be  referred  to  the  school 
medical  authority  for  examination  before  being  allowed  to  enter  the 
events. 


SCORE  SHEET 

Make  one  sheet  for  boys  and  one  for  girls  of  each  grade  and  class:  Town  or  city  (Rox- 
bury)-,  School  (5);  Prin.  (J.  W.  Smith);  Grade  or  class  (8th  grade)  No.  of  pupils  enrolled 
May  1:  Boys  (5);  Girls  (9). 


NAMES 

(BOYS'  EVENTS) 

Total 
pts. 

Aver- 
age 
or 
score 

Hon. 
record 

1  DASH 

2  JUMP 

3  PULL-UPS 

Time 

Pts. 

Hon. 

Dist. 

Pts. 

58 
50 
86 
62 

Hon. 

No. 

Pts. 

Hon. 

Adams,  J  
Burns,  W  
Smith,  F... 
Taylor,  P  

14* 
15" 
13" 
164* 

50 
25 
75 
0 

H 

mi' 

6'  10" 
6'  6" 

8' 
7' 

H 
H 
HH 
H 

6 

2 
10 
14 

60 
20 
100 
100 

H 

168 
95 
261 
162 

56 
31.7 

87 
54 

.H 

HH 
HH 

HighH 

Total  no.  boys 
competing 
(80%)  =4 

Total  pupil  scores  .  .             228.7 
Total  pupil  scores  228.7  ^no.  of  pupils  (4)  =grade  score  =  57.  17  =  57.21 

Date  (May  5,  1920)  ;  Test  conducted  by  (Miss  Smith)  ;  Phy.  Dir.,  Teacher 

Scoring  Rules  and  Suggestions 

In  computing  scores  carry  out  one  decimal  point  if  necessary;  if 
second  number  in  decimal  would  be  .05  or  over  add  .1  to  result,  if 
second  number  is  less  than  .05  disregard  it.  Illustration  above:  Burns, 
95  total  +  3  =  31.66;  score  it  31.7. 

It  is  usually  best  to  conduct  events  and  record  results  without  waiting 
to  compute  points,  at  time  of  test.  Make  computations  in  office  later 
with  help  of  teacher  and  announce  results  following  day. 

Events  may  be  run  off  all  in  one  day  or  a  different  day  taken  for 
each  one.  Complete  each  event  if  possible  on  day  it  is  started. 

Allow  only  one  official  test  for  each  event. 


302 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


SUMMARY  SHEET 

For  use  in  recording  class  scores  and  computing  school  fina  score 

(In  large  cities  one  copy  should  be  filed  at  local  school  and  one  at  main  office  of  director 
of  physical  education  for  the  city) 

School Principal 


Senior  division 

BOYS 

GIRLS 

CLASS   TOTALS 

Enrol- 
ment 

Total 
points 

Score 

80% 
Enrol- 
ment 

Total 
points 

Score 

80  % 
Enrol- 
ment 

Total 
points 

Score 

4th  year  high  

3d  year  high  

2d  year  high  

Senior  totals  

Junior  division 
1st  year  high  

8th  grade  

7th  grade  

Junior  totals  .    ... 

Grand  totals  

Final  school  score  «=  total  points  divided  by  total  enrolment. 


FINAL   REPORT 

One  copv  to  be  kept  on  file  and  one  to  be  sent  to  STATE  SUPERVISOR  of  PHYSICAL 
EDUCATION,  Education  Building,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  within  three  days  of  completion  of  test 
and  not  later  than  May  26. 

Place. . . 


ENROLMENT 

80% 

TOTAL  POINTS 

Senior  Division  —  Boys  

Senior  Division  —  Girls  

Junior  Division  —  Boys  

Junior  Division—  Girls  

Total  

Score  for  city:  Total  points,  divided  by  80  per  cent  =  final  city  score, 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 
BEST  CLASS  SCORES 


303 


Senior  division 


SCOKE 


NAME  OF  SCHOOL  AND  NO. 


4th  year  high — boys . . . 
4th  year  high — girls .  .  . 

3d  year  high — boys 

3d  year  high — girls 

2d  year  high — boys 

2d  year  high — girls 

Junior  division  SCORE  NAME  OF  SCHOOL  AND  NO. 

1st  year  high — boys. . . 

1st  year  high — girls 

8th  grade — boys 

8th  grade — girls 

7th  grade — boys 

7th  grade — girls 

I  certify  that  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  the  above  record  is  correct 
and  that  the  tests  were  conducted  according  to  rules. 

[Signed] Supt.  or  Prin. 

Director  of  Physical  Education  or 

teacher  in  charge  of  test 

ENTRY  BLANK  FORM 

The  following  statement  should  be  mailed  on  or  before  May  8,  if  a 
school  system  wishes  to  compete  in  the  state  contest,  to  the  State 
Supervisor  of  Physical  Education,  Education  Department,  Albany, 
N.  Y. 

Place Date 

Our  schools  intend  to  try  out  the  efficiency  test  and  will  submit 
results  on  or  before  May  26. 

[Signed] Supt.,  Pnn.  or 

Director  of  Physical  Education 


304 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 
THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

SCORING  TABLE 
New  York  State  Physical  Ability  Test 


POINTS 

BOYS 

• 

POINTS 

j 

100  YD.  DASH 

5  pts.  every 
|  sec. 

STANDING 
BROAD  JUMP 
2  pts.  every 
inch 

PULL-UPS 
10  pts. 
every 
pull  up 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

0 

2 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
15 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
25 

16  sec. 

15  sec. 

4  ft.  5  in. 
6  " 

7  " 

4  ft.  11  in. 
5ft. 
1  " 

0 

f\ 

4 

0 
2 

4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
15 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 

15f  sec. 

14|  sec. 

8  in. 
9  " 
10  " 
11  " 
5ft. 

2  in. 

3  " 

4  « 

5  " 

6  " 

15f  sec. 

14|  sec. 

1 

3 

15f  sec. 

14f  sec. 

1  in. 
2  " 

3  " 

4  « 

5  " 

7  in. 
8  " 
9  " 
10  " 
11  " 

15|  sec. 

14|  sec. 

2 

4 

15  sec. 

14  sec. 

5  ft.  5£  in. 

5ft.  lUin. 

25 

26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
35 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
45 
46 
48 

6  in. 
7  " 
8  " 
9  " 
10  " 

6ft. 
1  in. 
2  " 

3  " 

4  « 

26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
35 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
45 
46 
48 

14|  sec. 

13f  sec. 

3 

K 

Q 

14f  sec. 

13f  sec. 

11  in. 
6ft. 
1  " 
2  " 
3  " 

5  in. 
6  " 

7  " 
8  " 
9  " 

14|  sec. 

13f  sec. 

4 

6 

14|  sec. 

13|  sec. 

4  in. 

5  '" 

10  in. 
11  " 

~5 



50 

14  sec. 

13  sec. 

6  ft.  6  in. 

7ft. 

7 

50 

PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


305 


g 

fc 

8 

52 
54 
55 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
65 
66 
68 
70 
72 
74 

BOYS 

POINTS 

100  TD.  DASH 

5  pts.  every 
!  sec. 

STANDING 
BROAD  JUMP 
2  pts.  every 
inch 

PULL-UPS 
10  pts. 
every 
pull-up 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

7  in. 
8  " 

1  in. 
2  " 

52 
54 
55 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
65 
66 
68 
70 
72 
74 

13|  sec. 

12|  sec. 

9  in. 
10  " 
11  " 

7ft. 
1  " 

3  in. 
4  " 
5  " 
6  " 

7  " 

isf'sec. 

i2f  sec. 

6 

8 

13|  sec. 

12f  sec. 

2  in. 
3  " 
4  " 
5  " 
6  " 

8  in. 
9  " 
10  " 
11  " 

8ft. 

13|  sec. 

12|  sec. 

7 

9 

75 

13  sec. 

12  sec. 

7  ft.  6i  in. 

8  ft.   |  in. 

75 

76 
78 
80 
82 
84 
85 
86 
88 
90 
92 
94 
95 
96 
98 

7  in. 
8  " 
9  " 
10  " 
11  " 

1  in. 
2  " 
3  " 
4  " 
5  " 

76 
78 
80 
82 
84 
85 
86 
88 
90 
92 
94 
95 
96 
98 

12|  sec. 

11|  sec. 

8 

10 

12|  sec. 

llf  sec. 

8ft. 
1  in. 
2  " 
3  " 
4  " 

6  in. 
7  " 
8  " 
9  " 
10  " 

"9 

ii 

12f  sec. 

llf  sec. 

12!  sec. 

11|  sec. 

5  in. 
6  " 

11  in. 

9ft. 

100 

12  sec. 

11  sec. 

8ft.  7  in. 

9ft.  1  in. 

10 

12 

100 

306 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 
THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

SCORE  TABLE 
New  York  State  Physical  Ability  Test 


POINTS 

GIRLS 

POINTS 

50  YD.  DASH 

5  pts.  every 
1  sec. 

RUNNING 

AND  CATCHING 

2  pts.  every 
1  sec. 

BASKETBALL 
FAR  THROW 
2  pts.  every 
foot 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

0 

2 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
15 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 

101  sec. 

9|  sec. 

27  sec. 
26f  " 
26f  " 

25  sec. 
24|  " 
23J  " 

13  ft. 
14   " 
15   " 
15|  " 
16  " 
17  " 
18  " 
19  " 
20   " 
20|  " 
21   " 
22   " 
23   " 
24  " 
25   " 

17  ft. 
18   " 
19   " 
19|  " 
20   " 
21   " 
22   " 
23   " 
24   " 
24i  " 
25   " 
26   " 
27  " 
28  " 
29   " 

0 

2 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
15 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 

10  sec. 

9|  sec. 

26f  sec. 
261  " 
26   " 
25*  " 
25J  " 

23f  sec. 
231  " 
23   " 
22|  " 
22f  " 

9£  sec. 

9|  sec. 

9f  sec. 

91  sec. 

25f  sec. 
25f  " 
25   " 
241  " 
24f  " 

22|  sec. 

221  " 
22   " 
21*  " 
21|  " 

9f  sec. 

9  sec. 

25 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
35 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
45 
46 
48 
50 

91  sec. 

8£  sec. 

25£  ft. 

29^  ft. 

25 

24f  sec. 
241  " 
24   " 
231  " 
23f  " 

21f  sec. 
211  " 
21   " 
20|  " 
20|  " 

26  ft. 
27  " 
28   " 
29  " 
30  " 
30^  " 
31   " 
32   ' 
33   ' 
34   ( 
35   ' 
35|  ' 
36  " 
37  " 

30  ft. 
31   " 
32  " 
33  " 
34  " 
34^  " 
35  " 
36  " 
37  " 
38  " 
39  M 
39^  " 
40   " 
41   " 

26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
35 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
45 
46 
48 
50 

9  sec. 

8|  sec. 

8|  sec. 

8|  sec. 

23f  sec. 
231  " 
23   " 
221  " 
22f  " 

20f  sec. 

201  " 
20   " 
191  " 
19f  " 

8f  sec. 

81  sec. 

8|  sec. 

8  sec. 

22|  sec. 
221  " 

19f  sec. 
191  " 

81  sec. 

7|  sec. 

22  sec. 

19  sec. 

38  ft. 

42  ft. 

PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY 


307 


POINTS 

GIRLS 

POINTS 

50  YD.  DASH 

5  pts.  every 
1  sec. 

RUNNING 
AND  CATCHING 
2  pts.  every 
|  sec. 

BASKETBALL 

PAR  THROW 

2  pts.  every 
foot 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

Jrs. 

Srs. 

52 
54 
55 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
65 
66 
68 
70 
72 
74 

75 

76 

78 
80 
82 
84 
85 
86 
88 
90 
92 
94 
95 
96 
98 

21£  sec. 
21f  " 

18|  sec. 
18f  " 

39  ft. 
40  " 

m  " 

41   " 
42   " 
43   " 
44   " 
45   " 
45|  " 
46   " 
47  " 
48  " 
49  " 
50  " 

43  ft. 
44  " 
441  " 
45   " 
46   " 
47   " 
48   " 
49  " 
491  " 
50   " 
51  '' 
52  " 
53  " 
54  " 

52 
54 
55 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
65 
66 
68 
70 
72 
74 

8  sec. 

7|  sec. 

21f  sec. 
211  " 
21   " 
20£  " 
20f  " 

20f  'sec. 
201  " 
20   " 
19|  " 
19f  " 

18f  sec. 
181  " 
18   " 
17|  " 
17f  " 

i7f'sec. 
171  " 
17   " 
16|  " 
16f  " 

7$  sec. 

7f  sec. 

7f  sec. 

7|  sec. 

7f  sec. 

7  sec. 

71  sec. 

6f  sec. 

501  ft. 

541  ft. 

75 

19f  sec. 
191  " 
19  " 
18|  " 
18f  " 

16f  sec. 
161  " 
16   " 
15J  " 
15f  " 

51  ft. 
52  " 
53  " 
54  " 
55  " 
551  " 
56  " 
57  " 
58  " 
59  " 
60  " 
601  " 
61   " 
62  " 

55  ft. 
56  " 
57  " 
58  " 
59  " 
591  " 
60   " 
61   " 
62  " 
63  " 
64  " 
641  " 
65  " 
66  " 

76 
78 
80 
82 
84 
85 
86 
88 
90 
92 
94 
95 
96 
98 

7  sec. 

6f  sec. 

6£  sec. 

6f  sec. 

18f  sec. 
181  " 
18   " 
17*  " 
17f  " 

15f  sec. 
151  " 
15   " 
14|  " 

14|  " 

6f  sec. 

61  sec. 

6f  sec. 

6  sec. 

17|  sec. 
171  " 

14f  sec. 
141  " 

100 

6|  sec. 

5|  sec. 

17  sec. 

14  sec. 

63  ft. 

67  ft. 

00 

308 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  MOTOR  PERFORMANCE 
A  great  deal  of  attention  is  being  directed  at  a  careful 
study  of  the  performances  of  boys  and  girls  on  standard 
GRAPH  OF  ABILITY  OF  53  GIRLS  AND  83  BOYS 
IN  FIELD  &  TRACK  ATHLETICS 


55 


35 


10 


Straight 
Diagonal 


Normal 

Girls 

Boys 


6 


11 


13 


13 


14 


15 


7  8  9  10 

Years 

Fig.  14.    After  the  age  of  eleven  years  boys  show  a  marked  superiority  in  athletic 
ability  over  girls. 

GRAPH  OF  ATHLETIC  ABILITY  OF  BOYS 
AND  GIRLS  MAKING  HIGHEST  RATING 


Girls. 
Boys. 


8 


11 


12 


13 


14 


1? 


9  10 

Xeara 

Fig.  15.    The  athletio  superiority  of  boys  over  girla  is  more  marked  among  the  best 

athletes. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  309 

events  with  reference  to  securing  data  on  what  children 
can  do  and  also  to  increase  interest  in  physical  activities. 
Gilchrist*  reports  a  form  of  socialized  athletics  in  which 
the  team  scoring  value  is  determined  by  the  performance 
of  each  contestant.  The  graphs  in  figures  14  and  15  show 
the  athletic  ability  of  boys  and  girls  studied  by  Gilchrist. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  MANNY,  FRANK  A.    Seventh  Annual  Report.    "Scale  for  Mark- 

ing Nutrition."  School  and  Society,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  56,  pp.  123- 
124,  January  22,  1916. 

"  Indexes  of  Nutrition  and  Growth."  Modern  Hospital  Novem- 
ber, 1916,  p.  425. 

Recognized  as  a  valuable  method  of  classification  of  malnutri- 
tion. Good  articles. 

2.  NEWMAN,  SIR  GEORGE.    Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Medical 

Officer,  Board  of  Education,  London,  1914. 
A  report  of  unusual  significance  in  view  of  present  day  studies 
in  nutrition. 

3.  SCHUYTEN,  M.  C.    Transactions  Fourth  International  Congress 

on  School  Hygiene,  Vol.  IV,  p.  106. 

4.  WOLL,  FREDERICK  A.    Transactions  Fourth  International  Con- 

gress on  School  Hygiene,  Vol.  V,  p.  504. 

These  papers  (3  and  4)  are  two  of  many  valuable  papers  in 

these  proceedings. 

5.  CORNELL,  WALTER  S.    Health  and  Medical  Inspection  of  School 

Children,  F.  A.  Davis  Company,  1912,  Philadelphia. 
An  authoritative  text  on  this  subject. 

6.  Transactions  Fourth  International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene, 

Vol.  V,  pp.  176,  179,  182,  188,  206,  214,  216,  229,  232,  236, 
and  257. 
Excellent  articles  on  oral  hygiene. 

7.  LEE,  ROGER  I.     "The  Effect  of  Athletics  on  the  Heart." 

Harvard  Alumni  Bulletin,  February  1,  1917. 
LEE,  ROGER  I.    "The  Effect  of  Athletics  on  the  Heart:  The 

Athletic   Heart."      American   Physical   Education   Review, 

March,  1917,  p.  166. 
LEE,  DODD,  and  YOUNG.    "A  Study  of  the  Effect  of  Rowing  on 

the  Heart."   Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  September 

30,  1915. 
LEE,  ROGER  I.   "Preventable  Heart  Disease."   Boston  Medical 

and  Surgical  Journal,  July  29,  1915. 

*GUchrist,  Edward.     School  and  Society.     January  29,   1921,  pp.   148-9,  Vol.  XIII, 
No.  318.     See  also  School  and  Society,  May  18,  1918,  pp.  597-599,  Vol.  VII,  No.  177. 


310  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Modern  statements  on  the  relation  of  athletics  to  cardiac 
conditions. 

8.  FOSTER,  W.  L.     "Test  of  Physical  Efficiency."     American 

Physical  Education  Review,  November,  1914,  p.  632. 
A  useful  test.    Not  complete  but  easy  to  use. 

9.  CRAMPTON,  C.  WARD.     "Blood  Ptosis."    New  York  Medical 

Journal,  November  8,  1913. 
This  test  still  is  sub  judice. 

10.  BARRINGER,  THEO.  B.    "The  Circulatory  Reaction  to  Gradu- 

ated Work  as  a  Test  of  the  Heart's  Functional  Capacity." 
Archives  of  Internal  Medicine,  March,   1916,  Vol.  XVII, 
pp.  365-381. 
A  very  valuable  test  for  the  physician. 

11.  BRENNER,  E.  C.,  KNOPF,  S.  ADOLPHUS,  and  LAPHAM,  MARY  E. 

Transactions    Fourth    International    Congress    on    School 
Hygiene.    Vol.  V.,  pp.  434,  439,  448. 
Exceedingly  helpful  articles. 

12.  McKENZiE,  R.  TAIT.     Exercise  in  Education  and  Medicine, 

2nd  edition,  p.  392,  W.  B.  Saunders,  Philadelphia,  1915. 

13.  LOVETT,  R.  W.     Lateral  Curvature  of  the  Spine  and  Round 

Shoulders,  3rd  edition,  P.  Blakiston's  Sons  &  Company, 
Philadelphia,  1916. 

REYNOLDS,  E.,  and  LOVETT,  R.  W.  "Method  of  Determining 
the  Position  of  the  Center  of  Gravity  in  its  Relation  to 
certain  Bony  Landmarks  in  the  Erect  Position."  American 
Journal  of  Physiology,  May  1,  1909;  Journal  American 
Medical  Association,  March  26,  1910. 

Authoritative  and  standard  treatment  of  this  subject. 

14.  KLEEBERGER,  FRANK  L.    "Physical  Efficiency  Tests  as  a  Prac- 

tical Method  of  Popularizing  Physical  Education  at  the 
University  of  California."     American  Physical  Education 
Review,  December,  1917;  January,  1918. 
This  article  describes  the  test  used. 

15.  The  Canadian  Standard  Efficiency  Tests.    National  Council  of 

the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of  Canada,  Toronto. 
An  interesting  effort  to  combine  the  various  aspects  of  education. 

16.  WILSON,  E.  E.    "Physical  Efficiency  Tests."    American  Physi- 

cal Education  Review,  May,  1917,  p.  284. 

"Charts  of  Physical  Efficiency."  Official  Handbook  Newark 
Public  Schools,  Newark,  N.  J.,  p.  9.  American  Sports  Pub- 
lishing Company,  New  York  City. 

NASH,  J.  B.  "Physical  Efficiency."  American  Physical  Edu- 
cation Review,  May,  1917,  p.  293. 

RICHARDS,  J.  W.  "Physical  Education  Efficiency  Tests  for 
Grade  Schools."  December,  1914,  p.  637. 


PHYSICAL  EFFICIENCY  311 

17.  Rapeer,  W.  L.    "Minimum  Essentials  for  Physical  Education 

and  a  Scale  for  Measuring  Physical  Education."    16th  Year- 
book National  Society  for  the  Study ^  of  Education. 

18.  American  Red  Cross  Textbook  on  Life  Saving,   P.   Blakiston's 

Sons  and  Co.,  1012  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
CORSAN,  G.  H.    At  Home  in  the  Water,  Association  Press,  347 

Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City,  1916. 
HANDLE Y,   L.   DE  B.     Swimming  and   Watermanship,   The 

Macmillan  Company,  66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City,  1918. 
SHEFFIELD,  LYBA  and  NITA.    Swimming  Simplified,  Box  436, 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  1920. 
The  four  references  in  this  section  cover  all  aspects  of  the 

subject  of  swimming  and  life-saving.    Mr.  Handley's  book 

is  particularly  valuable.    The  manual  by  the  Misses  Sheffield 

is  splendidly  organized  and  practically  essential  for  the 

beginner. 


312 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


APPENDIX  A 

Diagrams  and  Measurements  of  Fields  and  Courts 
used  in  Physical  Education  Activities 

Hurdles      (Men) 

120  yd.    High  Hurdles    10  Hurdles      3  ft  6  in.  high 
•"p"      I       I       I       I       I       I       I       I       I       I          , 

15yds.   10    10     10     10     10     10     10     10     10      15 
Start  Finish 


220  yd.     Low  Hurdles 

10  Hurdles       2  ft.  6  in.  high 


20yds. 
Start 


20 
Finish, 


Hurdles      (Women) 

40  yds.       3  Hurdles       3  ft  6  in.  high 

Start    10yds-  10  10 


-H 

Finish 


60  yds.      6  Hurdles       2  ft  6  in.  high 


Start    10  yds. 


10    Finish 


60  yds.      4  Hurdles        2  ft.  G  in.  high 

I — «—  — L- 


(Generally  accepted  as 
the  most  desirable 
for  girls  &  women) 

' -I 


start 


10 


10 


16yds. 

Finish 


APPENDIX  A 


313 


Baseball  &  Basket  Ball 
Distance  Throw 


Javelin 


Shot  Put  &  Discus 


2$  in. 


12ft. 


Running  Broad  Jump 


26  to  30  ft 


<                     30  to  40  yds.,-         _*/  :  1  —  !  :  =  —  ""  V.™  '     .  •'  •/ 
jSztoZft.               /          J^.'    '-'-    '••'-   Pit  of  -soft  Sand-  -.-I".".-   --;/£• 

Balk  line  6  ft/*                 ^-f-  —  - 
from  Take  off                          iTak 

Running  High  Jump 

3  off  Board  5  in.  wide 

Peg  must  not  project 
j/  over  3  in. 

&  Pole  Vault 

/ 
/ 

/ 

/    /           /, 

"~7 

<     /  —  Pit  6  ft 
/      square 

Jalk  Line  for 
High  Jump 

/   /    / 

/                  ^                     / 

/        *          / 

/ 


/ 


/Balk  Line  for  Pole  Vault 


314 

Volley  Ball 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Top  of  Net 

7i  feet  to  floor 
Net  to  be 

3  feet  wide 


mun  60ft 


Hand  Ball 

rGin. 


^"2  ft. 


30ft. 


60ft. 

Front  Wall  85  fthforh 


Side  Walls 

35ft  high 
in  front 

10  ft.  high 
in  back 


Squash  Tennis 

Side  Walla  12  ft.  hi*h 


/ 


Canter  line 

*-10ft.-> 

Back       I 

Wall        J 
9ft.  high  5 

/     1 

Service  Board 

Hft. 

L2ft 

32i  ft. 

Front  Wall  14  ft  high 
Service  Board  6i  ft  above  floor 


Front  Wall 


APPENDIX  A 


315 


Tennis 


* 

1 

. 

j         .,   21  ft..-        v 

*      .IS  ft          * 

tr 


Basket  Ball      (Line  Game)        (Women) 

Width  of  line  divisions  12  in. 


Diameter  4  ft. 


Back  board 
2  ft.  from  end  line 


kisft. 


Center  of  basket 
15  in.  from  back  board 


-Regulation  Length  70  f  t.- 
Maximum  90  ft. 


Basket  Ball      ( Mens  Court) 

As  above  without  division  lines  &  with  following:  size 
Maximum  length  90  ft. 
Maximum  width  50ft. 
Minimum  length  60  ft. 
Minimum  width  35ft. 
General  length  70ft 
General  width  50ft. 


316 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Soccer 


ifcMfi        F^Id  Hockey 


50  to  100  yds. 


115  x  75  yds 


Goal  Area 


20yds. 
Penalty  Area 


44yds. 


18  yds." 


I 


Penalty  Kick 


,6yds. 


15  ft. 


25  yds.  Line 


25  yds.  Line 


[15  yds.  4  yds. 


G  yd?. 


55  to  60  yds. • 

Desirable  size  for  girls 
Length  75  yds. 
Width  56  yds. 


Goal  Posts 
8  ft.  high 


Desirable  size  for  girls 
Length  90  yds. 
Width  60  yds. 


APPENDIX  A 


317 


Playground  Ball 


\ 


X 


35 


Bases 
18"x  18' 


/     > 

Home  Plate  <  / 

12"xl2"     \\/ Batters  Box  4  x3 
^^  6"from  Home  Plate 

Football 


35' 


5  10  15  20  26  30  35  40  46  50  46  40  35  30  25  20  15  1 

0   5 

_c 
O 

i 

i 

j 

End  Zone 

End  Zone 

-*  .-                           360  ft.  >- 

Goal  Posts  14  6  wide 


318 

Baseball 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


Home  Plate 

Tf 


\ 


""*< 


sr 


90ft 


Bases  15"x  15 


-3?\  6"from  Home  Plate 

^J 


6  ft  long,  4  ft.  wide 


^-3  ft 
15ft 


Indoor  Baseball 


Batter's  Box  4' x  8^ 
6  from  Home  Plate 


27ft 


Bases  18"x  18" 


-  Home  Plate  12  x  12 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

1.  Hadden,  G.    Space  vs.  Sports,  American  Physical  Education 

Review,  May,  1922,  p.  228. 

2.  Layout  and  Equipment  of  Playgrounds,  The  Playground  and 
f   *      Recreation  Association  of  America,  New  York,  February,  1921 . 


APPENDIX  B  819 


APPENDIX  B 

Equipment  for  Physical  Education 

I.    One  Room  Rural  School 

A.  Situation 

Fifteen  to  thirty  children.  Outdoor  play 
space  available.  Regular  teacher.  No  covered 
outdoor  playground. 

B.  Minimum  Equipment 

Two  basketballs,  1  soccer  ball,  3  play- 
ground balls  (or  3  indoor  baseballs,  No.  12, 
medium  hard),  2  indoor  baseball  bats,  1 
volley  ball,  1  volley  ball  net  and  standards, 
1  jump  standards,  1  horizontal  bar. 

II.    Two  Room  Rural  School 

A.  Situation 

Sixty  to  eighty  children.  Outdoor  play 
space  available.  Regular  teacher.  No  covered 
outdoor  playground. 

B.  Minimum  Equipment 

Two  basketballs,  1  soccer  ball,  5  play- 
ground balls  (or  5  indoor  baseballs,  No.  12, 
medium  hard),  2  volley  balls  and  2  volley 
ball  nets  and  standards,  2  indoor  baseball 
bats,  2  jump  standards,  2  horizontal  bars. 

III.    Village  or  Town  Elementary  School 
A.    Situation 

Six  grades,  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
pupils.  Outdoor  play  space  available  such 
as  yard  or  field.  Regular  class  teachers. 
No  gymnasium. 


320  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

B.     Minimum  Equipment 

Two  basketballs,  2  playground  balls  (or 
2  indoor  baseballs,  No.  12,  medium  hard), 
2  indoor  baseball  bats,  1  volley  ball,  1  volley 
ball  net  and  standards,  1  sand  box,  6  climbing 
ropes,  1  jumping  pit. 
IV.  City  Elementary  School 

A.  Situation 

Six  grades,  four  hundred  to  five  hundred 
pupils.  No  outdoor  play  space  available 
except  street.  Corridors  present  limited  use. 
Regular  class  teacher.  No  gymnasium. 

B.  Minimum  Equipment 

Four    basketballs,    4    playground    balls, 
4  indoor  baseball  bats,  2  volley  balls,  2  volley 
ball  nets  and  standards  (weighted  base),  2 
mats  for  use  in  corridor. 
V.     Gymnasium  for  Elementary  Children 

A.  Situation 

Six  grades.  Boys  and  girls,  classes  separate 
after  the  fourth  grade.  Thirty  to  forty 
children  in  a  class.  Gymnasium  30'  x  40'. 

B.  Minimum  Equipment 

Two  basketballs,   1  volley  ball,  net  and 
standards,  2  indoor  baseballs  No.  12,  2  bats, 
8  climbing  ropes,  stall  bars  to  serve  as  climb- 
ing ladders,  4  mats  4'  x  4',  4  balance  beams, 
4  bean  bags,  2  jump  standards. 
VI.     A.     Gymnasium  for  High  School  Boys 
Minimum  Equipment 

Four  basketballs,  2  volley  balls,  2  nets 
and  2  standards,  4  indoor  baseballs,  No.  12, 
2  bats,  2  bucks,  2  vaulting  boxes,  2  jump 
standards,  8  mats  6'  x  8',  1  low  horizontal 
bar,  1  high  horizontal  bar,  6  ropes. 


APPENDIX  B  i.321 

B.     Gymnasium  for  High  School  Girls 
Minimum  Equipment 

Four  basketballs,  2  volley  balls,  2  nets 
and  standards,  4  indoor  baseballs,  No.  12, 
2  bats,  2  jump  standards,  6  mats  4'x6', 
12  ropes,  2  vaulting  boxes,  set  of  12  stall 
bars  and  benches. 


INDEX 


Absences,  245 
Adenoids,  262 
Administration,  of  athletics,  161-165 

of  excuses,  233 

of  intramural  sports,  218 

of  playground,  149-159 

of  pool,  133-139 

of  special  cases,  242 
Age,  physiological,  38 
Aims,  16,  18,  74 

corrective,  24 

educational,  26 

fallacies  in,  8 

familiar,  23 

hygienic,  28 

old,  6-8 

Amateurism,  169 
Apparatus,  30,  31,  60 

care  of,  142 

for  girls,  60 

testing  of,  141 

use  of,  on  playground,  155 
Athletics,  18,  27;  30,  31 

administrative  problems  in,  166 

evils  of,  169-173,  177 

for  all,  178,  212 

for  girls,  51,  180 

in  the  army,  221 

influence  of  alumni  in,  85,  163 

interscholastic  vs.  intrasehool, 
174 

medical  control  of,  209 

organization    and   administra- 
tion of,  161-165 

results  of,  107 
Attendance,  244 

Badge  tests,  284 

Baltimore  physical  education,  75 
Barnard  physical  efficiency  test,  278 
Barringer  heart  test,  264 
Boston  physical  education,  76 
Boys,  athletics  for,  62 
Breathing,  deep,  9 
exercises,  105 
Bye,  drawing  of,  200 


California  physical  efficiency  test, 
275 

Calisthenics,  formal,  2,  9,  59 

Camping,  230 

Canadian  physical  efficiency  test, 
279 

Chicago  physical  education,  75 

Circulatory  system,  wholesome  ac- 
tivity of,  29 

Citizenship,  good  qualities  of,  17, 20, 
35 

training  in,  58 

Coach,  qualifications  of  a,  167 

who  shall  select  the,  166,  173- 
174 

Columbia  physical  efficiency  test, 
276 

Conjunctivitis,  260 

Coordination,  32 

Corrective  gymnastics,  25,  109 

Crampton  test,  263 

Credit  for  physical  education,  242 

Curriculum,  36,  39,  45,  109 
content  of,  46 
extra  activities  of  the,  165 

Dancing,  27,  31,  70-72 

points  in  good,  108 
Denver  physical  education,  76 
Detroit  physical  education,  76 

physical  efficiency  test,  282 
Discipline,  formal,  2,  13 
Drill,  formal,  59 

in  physical  education,  27,  46 

military,  241 
Dunfermline  scale,  253 

Ears,  260 

Education  and  physical  education, 
10,  86,  165,  173 

Equipment  for  athletic  meets,  191 
for  competitive  games,  195 
for  intramural  sports,  218 
importance  of  good,  125 
use  by  boys  and  girls,  126 


[323] 


324 


INDEX 


Excretory   system,   wholesome   ac- 
tivity of,  29 

Excuses  in  physical  education,  232 
Eyes,  258 

Feet,  examination  of,  266 
Focal  infection,  261 
Folk  dancing,  11,  27,  70 
Foster  test,  294 
Floors,  cleaning  of,  140 

Games,  11,  17,  27,  30,  31,  64-70 
Girls,  ability  in  athletics  of,  308 

apparatus  for,  60 

athletics  for,  51,  61,  180 

classes   in   physical   education 
for,  89 

recreational  clubs  for,  226 
Grading,  248 
Gymnasium,  administration  of,  126 

air  of,  142-143 

cleanliness  and  care  of,  139 

double,  127 

schoolroom  as  the,  140 
Gymnastics,  corrective,  25,  109 

educational,  26 

formal,  46,  54,  59 

German,  3 

hygienic,  28 

natural,  27,  30, 31,  54,  57 

Swedish,  4 

Health,  estimation  of,  253 

observation  of,  101 

observation    of    disorders    of, 
268-272 

viewpoint  of,  9,  13,  17,  19,  98 
Heart  defects,  239 
Heart  tests,  263-266 
Honesty,  11,  20 

Interest,  26,  27,  30 

Jahn, 3 

Judging  physical  education,  100, 104 
need  for  means  of,  110-113 

Kansas  City  physical  education,  75 

Life-saving  test,  292 
Ling,  4 


Locker  room,  127 

records  of,  129 
Loyalty,  11,  21 
Lungs,  examination  of,  266 

Malnutrition,  253 

Management  of  athletics,  182-197 

Natural  dancing,  71 

gymnastics,  27,  31,  57 
New  York  City  physical  education, 

79 
New  York  State  physical  ability 

test,  298 

Nervous  system,  and  physical  edu- 
cation, 16,  29 

wholesome  activity  of,  29 
Nutrition,  253 

scale  for  marking,  253-258 

Objectives,  44 
Oppenheimer's  scale,  255 
Organization,  and  physical  needs,  37 

good  athletic,  106-108 

in  college  and  university,  82-89 

in  the  state,  89 

of  city  playgrounds,  145-148 

of  intramural  sport,  216 

of  national  physical  education, 
91 

of  public  school  departments, 
74-80 

present  methods  of,  32 

point  in  departmental,  109 

suggested  plan  of,  81 
Philadelphia  physical  education,  79 
Physical  education,  aims,  old,  6-8 

and  general  education,  10,  86 

historical,  1-5 

minimum  essentials  of,  5, 48-51 

observation  of,  103 

principles  of,  12-16 

tendency  in,  6,  11,  56 

the  new,  14 
Physical  efficiency,  272 

tests,  273-309 
Play,  12, 13,  17 
Play  programs,  151-154 

faults  in,  150 
Playground,  149-159 
Pool,  133-139 

rules  in  the,  139 

swimming  meets  hi,  196 


INDEX 


325 


Principles  of  physical  education,  12, 
16,  86 

in    support    of    physical    edu- 
cation, 122 
Professionalism,  169 
Public   school   physical   education, 

74-80 
Purification  of  pool  water,  134-138 

Rapeer's  scale,  293 

Rating  of  activities,  63-64 

Recreation,  administration  of  city,    ^Swimming  cards,  198-199 


Sports,  27,  30,  61 

for  all,  218 

intramural,  212 

intramural  for  women,  214 
Standards  in  physical  education,  249 
Substitution  requirement,  238 
Supervision  of  physical  education, 
82,  122-124 

present  procedure  in,  113 
^"  principles  of,  122 
Jrapervisor,  selection  of,  93 


145 

Recreational  clubs,  224 
Respiratory  exercises,  106 

system,  wholesome  activity  of, 

29 

Roll  taking,  246 

Rural    school,    physical    efficiency 
tests  in,  282 

San  Francisco  physical  education,  75 
Sanitation  of  the  school,  101 
Sargent's  physical  test,  293 
Schedules,  for  competition,  202,  203 

handball,  208 

how  to  make,  204 

of  a  department,  39,  45,  109, 

132,  156 

Schneider  test,  265 
Seattle  physical  education,  76 
Sex,  division  of  classes  for,  38 
Sheffield  swimming  tests,  288 
Showers,  127,  131,  133 
Skill,  11 
Soap,  144 

Social  dancing,  71,  109 
Spine,  examination  of  the,  267 


meets,  196 
tests,  228,  288 
System  of  physical  education,  3,  4,  18 

Tactics,  57 

TflrHmffBL  245 

-TSacher  of  physical  education,  93-99 
points  in  a  good,  95,  122 
selection  of,  93  ^~~~*^ 

"TSeth,  261 

Temperature  of  gymnasium,  143 

Tonsils,  262 

Tournaments,  197 

Towels  and  soap,  144 

Trachoma,  259 

Training  of  teachers,  94 

Truthfulness,  11,  20 

Value  of  intramural  sports,  215 
social  and  moral,  12,  15,  17,  20, 

52-54,  97,  167,  175 
Vigor,  physical,  34-36 

Water,  drinking,  145 

pool,  133-139 
Wood's  tables,  256-257 


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